Adyghe verbs

In Adyghe, like all Northwest Caucasian languages, the verb is the most inflected part of speech. Verbs are typically head final and are conjugated for tense, person, number, etc. Some of Circassian verbs can be morphologically simple, some of them consist only of one morpheme, like: кӏо "go", штэ "take". However, generally, Circassian verbs are characterized as structurally and semantically difficult entities. Morphological structure of a Circassian verb includes affixes (prefixes, suffixes) which are specific to the language. Verbal affixes express meaning of subject, direct or indirect object, adverbial, singular or plural form, negative form, mood, direction, mutuality, compatibility and reflexivity, which, as a result, creates a complex verb, that consists of many morphemes and semantically expresses a sentence. For example: уакъыдэсэгъэгущыӏэжьы "I am forcing you to talk to them again" consists of the following morphemes: у-а-къы-дэ-сэ-гъэ-гущыӏэ-жьы, with the following meanings: "you (у) with them (а) from there (къы) together (дэ) I (сэ) am forcing (гъэ) to speak (гущыӏэн) again (жьы)".

Color Legend for Arguments:

• Absolutive (Abs): Marks the Subject of intransitive verbs and Direct Object of transitive verbs.
• Ergative (Erg): Marks the Subject (Agent) of transitive verbs.
• Oblique (Obl): Marks Indirect Objects.

The verbal word in Adyghe consists of both prefixes and suffixes. The structure is rigidly organized into specific "slots" or positions relative to the root.

The arguments of the verb are cross-referenced in the prefixal part of the verb form. The elements cross-referenced include the Absolutive argument and most participants expressed by the Oblique form.

The overall structure of the Adyghe verbal complex is shown below:^[1][2][3]

Fig. 1. Prefixes

Prefixes
Argument structure zone								Pre-stem elements
Absolutive	Directional prefix	Manner / Factive	Indirect object (Oblique)	Applica- tives	General Prepositional	Locative / Prepositional	Agent (Ergative)	'Dynamic' prefix	Optative	Negation
−12	−11	-10	−9	−8	−7	−6	−5	−4	−3	−2
с- / у- / т- / шъу- / ∅ (3rd is null)	къ- (hither)	зэрэ- (the way)	с- / у- / п- / т- / шъу- / е- / а- / я-	фэ- (for) шӏо- (against) дэ- (with)	щы- (at)	те- (on) чӏэ- (under) хэ- (within/among) дэ- (in) пы- (on/attached) и- (in) къо- (behind) бгъодэ- (besides) ӏу- (at/near) го- (besides) кӏоцӏы- (within inside)	с- / у- / т- / шъу- / е- / а- / я-	мэ-	рэ-	мы-

Fig. 2. Suffixes

Prefixes	Root	Suffixes
Causa- tive	Root	Directional, inceptive, antipassive	Potential	Tense	Realization / Completion	Plural	'Dy- namic' suffix	Mood / Negation
−1	0	+1	+2	+3	+4	+5	+6	+7
гъэ- (CAUS)	[Verb]	-жь (again)	-шъу (can)	-гъэ (PST) -щт (FUT) -щтыгъ (IMPF) -гъагъ (PP)	-х	-х (Absolutive 3rd person plural)	-рэ	-п (NEG) -мэ (COND) -ми (CONC) -а (Q) -ба (NEG.Q) -и (AND) -эу (ADV)

Morphological breakdown of плъэ

Morphological Breakdown	English Translation
плъэ	look
сэ-плъэ	I look
сы-о-плъы	I look at you
с-къы-о-плъы	I look at you
с-къы-п-те-плъэ	I look upon you
с-къы-зэрэ-п-те-плъэ-рэ-р	The way I look upon you
с-къы-п-фэ-те-плъэ	I look upon him for you
с-къы-зэрэ-п-фэ-те-плъэ-рэ-р	The way I look upon him for you
с-къы-зэрэ-п-те-плъэ-жьы-шъу-гъа-хэ-р	The way I already was able to look upon you again

The conjugation of the intransitive monovalent verb плъэн /pɬan/ "to look". The subject is Absolutive.

Conjugation of плъэн (to look)

Person	Form	Morphemes
I	Сэплъэ	1SG.ABS-look
You	Оплъэ	2SG.ABS-look
He/She/It	Мэплъэ	3SG.ABS-look
Y'all	Шъоплъэ	2PL.ABS-look
They	Мэплъэх	3PL.ABS-look-PL

The conjugation of the intransitive bivalent verb еплъын /japɬən/ "to look at". The subject is Absolutive, the object is Oblique.

Conjugation of еплъын (to look at)

Subject (Abs)	Object (Oblique)
	At me	At you	At him	At us	At y'all	At them	At oneself
I		Сыоплъы Сыкъыоплъы {I look at you}	Сеплъы Сыкъеплъы {I look at him}		Сышъоплъы Сыкъышъоплъы {I look at y'all}	Саплъы Сыкъаплъы {I look at them}	Сызэплъыжьы Сыкъызэплъыжьы {I look at myself}
You	Укъысэплъы {You look at me}		Уеплъы Укъеплъы {You look at him}	Укъытэплъы {You look at us}		Уаплъы Укъаплъы {You look at them}	Узэплъыжьы Укъызэплъыжьы {You look at yourself}
He	Къысэплъы {He looks at me}	Къыоплъы {He looks at you}	Еплъы Къеплъы {He looks at him}	Къытэплъы {He looks at us}	Къышъоплъы {He looks at y'all}	Аплъы Къаплъы {He looks at them}	Зэплъыжьы Къызэплъыжьы {He looks at himself}
We		Тыоплъы Тыкъыоплъы {We look at you}	Теплъы Тыкъеплъы {We look at him}		Тышъоплъы Тыкъышъоплъы {We look at y'all}	Таплъы Тыкъаплъы {We look at them}	Тызэплъыжьы Тыкъызэплъыжьы {We look at ourselves}
Y'all	Шъукъысэплъы {Y'all look at me}		Шъуеплъы Шъукъеплъы {Y'all look at him}	Шъукъытэплъы {Y'all look at us}		Шъуаплъы Шъукъаплъы {Y'all look at them}	Шъузэплъыжьы Шъукъызэплъыжьы {Y'all look at yourselves}
They	Къысэплъых {They look at me}	Къыоплъых {They look at you}	Еплъых Къеплъых {They look at him}	Къытэплъых {They look at us}	Къышъоплъых {They look at y'all}	Аплъых Къаплъых {They look at them}	Зэплъыжьых Къызэплъыжьых {They look at themselves}

The conjugation of the intransitive bivalent verb еплъыгъ "looked at". The subject is Absolutive, the object is Oblique.

Conjugation of еплъыгъ (looked at)

Subject (Abs)	Object (Oblique)
	At me	At you	At him	At us	At y'all	At them	At oneself
I		Сыоплъыгъ Скъыоплъыгъ {I looked at you}	Сеплъыгъ Скъеплъыгъ {I looked at him}		Сышъоплъыгъ Скъышъоплъыгъ {I looked at y'all}	Саплъыгъ Скъаплъыгъ {I looked at them}	Сызэплъыжьыгъ Сыкъызэплъыжьыгъ {I looked at myself}
You	Укъысэплъыгъ {You looked at me}		Уеплъыгъ Укъеплъыгъ {You looked at him}	Укъытэплъыгъ {You looked at us}		Уаплъыгъ Укъаплъыгъ {You looked at them}	Узэплъыжьыгъ Укъызэплъыжьыгъ {You looked at yourself}
He	Къысэплъыгъ {He looked at me}	Къыоплъыгъ {He looked at you}	Еплъыгъ Къеплъыгъ {He looked at him}	Къытэплъыгъ {He looked at us}	Къышъоплъыгъ {He looked at y'all}	Аплъыгъ Къаплъыгъ {He looked at them}	Зэплъыжьыгъ Къызэплъыжьыгъ {He looked at himself}
We		Тыоплъыгъ Ткъыоплъыгъ {We looked at you}	Теплъыгъ Ткъеплъыгъ {We looked at him}		Тышъоплъыгъ Ткъышъоплъыгъ {We looked at y'all}	Таплъыгъ Ткъаплъыгъ {We looked at them}	Тызэплъыжьыгъ Тыкъызэплъыжьыгъ {We looked at ourselves}
Y'all	Шъукъысэплъыгъ {Y'all looked at me}		Шъуеплъыгъ Шъукъеплъыгъ {Y'all looked at him}	Шъукъытэплъыгъ {Y'all looked at us}		Шъуаплъыгъ Шъукъаплъыгъ {Y'all looked at them}	Шъузэплъыжьыгъ Шъукъызэплъыжьыгъ {Y'all looked at yourselves}
They	Къысэплъыгъэх {They looked at me}	Къыоплъыгъэх {They looked at you}	Еплъыгъэх Къеплъыгъэх {They looked at him}	Къытэплъыгъэх {They looked at us}	Къышъоплъыгъэх {They looked at y'all}	Аплъыгъэх Къаплъыгъэх {They looked at them}	Зэплъыжьыгъэх Къызэплъыжьыгъэх {They looked at themselves}

The conjugation of the transitive bivalent verb ылъэгъун /əɬaʁʷən/ "to see it". The subject is Ergative, the object is Absolutive.

Conjugation of ылъэгъун (to see)

Subject (Erg)	Object (Abs)
	Me	You	Him/It	Us	Y'all	Them	Oneself
I		Осэлъэгъу Укъэсэлъэгъу {I see you}	Сэлъэгъу Къэсэлъэгъу {I see him}		Шъосэлъэгъу Шъукъэсэлъэгъу {I see y'all}	Сэлъэгъух Къэсэлъэгъух {I see them}	Зэсэлъэгъужьы Зкъэсэлъэгъужьы {I see myself}
You	Сэолъэгъу Скъэолъэгъу {You see me}		Олъэгъу Къэолъэгъу {You see him}	Тэолъэгъу Ткъэолъэгъу {You see us}		Олъэгъух Къэолъэгъух {You see them}	Зэолъэгъужьы Зкъэолъэгъужьы {You see yourself}
He	Селъэгъу Скъелъэгъу {He sees me}	Уелъэгъу Укъелъэгъу {He sees you}	Елъэгъу Къелъэгъу {He sees him}	Телъэгъу Ткъелъэгъу {He sees us}	Шъуелъэгъу Шъукъелъэгъу {He sees y'all}	Елъэгъух Къелъэгъух {He sees them}	Зелъэгъужьы Зыкъелъэгъужьы {He sees himself}
We		Отэлъэгъу Укъэтэлъэгъу {We see you}	Тэлъэгъу Къэтэлъэгъу {We see him}		Шъотэлъэгъу Шъукъэтэлъэгъу {We see y'all}	Тэлъэгъух Къэтэлъэгъух {We see them}	Зэтэлъэгъужьы Зкъэтэлъэгъужьы {We see ourselves}
Y'all	Сэшъолъэгъу Скъэшъолъэгъу {Y'all see me}		Шъолъэгъу Къэшъолъэгъу {Y'all see him}	Тэшъолъэгъу Ткъэшъолъэгъу {Y'all see us}		Шъолъэгъух Къэшъолъэгъух {Y'all see them}	Зэшъолъэгъужьы Зкъэшъолъэгъужьы {Y'all see yourselves}
They	Салъэгъу Скъалъэгъу {They see me}	Уалъэгъу Укъалъэгъу {They see you}	Алъэгъу Къалъэгъу {They see him}	Талъэгъу Ткъалъэгъу {They see us}	Шъуалъэгъу Шъукъалъэгъу {They see y'all}	Алъэгъух Къалъэгъух {They see them}	Залъэгъужьы Зыкъалъэгъужьы {They see themselves}

Note on dialectal variations: In the official Adyghe literary language, the 2nd person singular ergative prefix (Subject "You") is strictly -о-. However, many other Circassian dialects allow both -о- and -бэ-. The form -бэ- is an exception in that it cannot start a verb; it is only allowed in the middle of a word (e.g., when preceded by another prefix like an object or directional marker).

Examples of dialectal variation:

• Сэолъэгъу (Standard) = Сэбэлъэгъу (Dialectal)
• Къэолъэгъух (Standard) = Къэбэлъэгъух (Dialectal)

The conjugation of the transitive bivalent verb лъэгъугъ "saw". In transitive verbs, the subject is Ergative / Oblique and the object is Absolutive.

Conjugation of лъэгъугъ (saw)

Subject (Erg / Obl)	Object (Abs)
	Me	You	Him	Us	Y'all	Them	Oneself
I		Услъэгъугъ Укъэслъэгъугъ {I saw you}	Слъэгъугъ Къыслъэгъугъ {I saw him}		Шъуслъэгъугъ Шъукъэслъэгъугъ {I saw y'all}	Слъэгъугъх Къыслъэгъугъх {I saw them}	Зыслъэгъужьыгъ {I saw myself}
You	Сыплъэгъугъ Скъыплъэгъугъ {You saw me}		Плъэгъугъ Къыплъэгъугъ Улъэгъугъ {You saw him}	Тыплъэгъугъ Ткъыплъэгъугъ {You saw us}		Плъэгъугъх Къыплъэгъугъх Улъэгъугъх {You saw them}	Зыплъэгъужьыгъ {You saw yourself}
He	Сылъэгъугъ Скъылъэгъугъ {He saw me}	Улъэгъугъ Укъылъэгъугъ {He saw you}	Ылъэгъугъ Къылъэгъугъ {He saw him}	Тылъэгъугъ Ткъылъэгъугъ {He saw us}	Шъулъэгъугъ Шъукъылъэгъугъ {He saw y'all}	Ылъэгъугъэх Къылъэгъугъэх {He saw them}	Зилъэгъужьыгъ {He saw himself}
We		Утлъэгъугъ Укъытлъэгъугъ {We saw you}	Тлъэгъугъ Къытлъэгъугъ {We saw him}		Шъутлъэгъугъ Шъукъытлъэгъугъ {We saw y'all}	Тлъэгъугъх Къытлъэгъугъх {We saw them}	Зытлъэгъужьыгъ {We saw ourselves}
Y'all	Сышъулъэгъугъ Сыкъышъулъэгъугъ {Y'all saw me}		Шъулъэгъугъ Къышъулъэгъугъ {Y'all saw him}	Тышъулъэгъугъ Тыкъышъулъэгъугъ {Y'all saw us}		Шъулъэгъугъх Къышъулъэгъугъх {Y'all saw them}	Зышъулъэгъужьыгъ {Y'all saw yourselves}
They	Салъэгъугъ Скъалъэгъугъ {They saw me}	Уалъэгъугъ Укъалъэгъугъ {They saw you}	Алъэгъугъ Къалъэгъугъ {They saw him}	Талъэгъугъ Ткъалъэгъугъ {They saw us}	Шъуалъэгъугъ Шъукъалъэгъугъ {They saw y'all}	Алъэгъугъэх Къалъэгъугъэх {They saw them}	Залъэгъужьыгъ {They saw themselves}

Adyghe verbs are categorized into two main aspectual classes: dynamic and stative (also called static or steady-state). This distinction is fundamental to Circassian grammar, as it influences verb conjugation and the prefixes used.

• Dynamic verbs express actions, processes, or changes in state. They describe what the subject is doing.
• Stative verbs express a condition, a state of being, a result of an action, or a quality. They describe what the subject is or has.

To understand the difference, consider the concept of "standing":

• Stative: щыт [ɕət] — "(s)he is standing" (maintaining the state).
• Dynamic: къэтэджын [qatad͡ʒən] — "to stand up" (the process of rising from a sitting/lying position).

Dynamic verbs typically use the dynamic prefixes (such as мэ- /ma/ in the 3rd person or сэ- /sa/ in the 1st person) in the present tense.

Type	Adyghe	IPA	Translation
Motion	ар макӏо	/maːkʷʼa/	(s)he is going
	сэ сэчъэ	/sat͡ʂa/	I am running
	сэ сэцӏэнлъэ	/sat͡sʼanɬa/	I am crawling
	сэ сэлъэгъу	/saɬaʁʷə/	I am seeing
Action	ар еджэ	/jad͡ʒa/	(s)he is reading it
	сэ сэӏо	/saʔʷa/	I am saying
	ащ еукӏы	/jawət͡ʃʼə/	(s)he is killing it
	ар мэчъые	/mat͡ʂəja/	(s)he is sleeping

Stative verbs usually mark the subject with absolutive prefixes (сы- /sə/ for 1st person, у- /wə/ for 2nd person, and zero marking for 3rd person). Nouns indicating a profession or role can also function as stative verbs.

Type	Adyghe	IPA	Translation
Positional	ар щыс	/ɕəs/	(s)he is sitting
	сэ сыщыт	/səɕət/	I am standing
	сэ сыщылъ	/səɕəɬ/	I am lying down
Existence/State	ар щыӏ	/ɕəʔ/	(s)he exists / is present
	ащ иӏ	/jəʔ/	(s)he has (possession)
	ар фай	/faːj/	(s)he wants
ащ икӏас	/jət͡ʃʼaːs/	(s)he likes
Equational (Nouns as verbs)	сэ сыпхъашӏ	/səpχaːʃʼ/	I am a carpenter
	ар цӏыф	/t͡sʼəf/	(s)he is a person

Below is the present tense conjugation for the stative verb щысын "to be sitting". Note the subject prefixes used.

Number	Person	Prefix	Adyghe	IPA	Translation
Singular	1st	сы~	сыщыс	/səɕəs/	I am sitting
	2nd	у~	ущыс	/wəɕəs/	You are sitting
	3rd	(null)	щыс	/ɕəs/	(S)he is sitting
Plural	1st	ты~	тыщыс	/təɕəs/	We are sitting
	2nd	шъу~	шъущыс	/ʃʷəɕəs/	You (pl) are sitting
	3rd	~х	щысх	/ɕəsx/	They are sitting

Positional stative verbs often take locative prefixes to indicate relative position (inside, on, near).

Participles in Adyghe are formed by adding noun case markers (Absolutive -р, Ergative -м, etc.) directly to the verb form. This turns the verb into a noun or adjective (e.g., "the one who walks," "the sitting one").

The Dynamic Suffix -рэ: The suffix -рэ is a marker of dynamic action inherited from Proto-Circassian (reconstructed as *-ra). In Modern Adyghe, this suffix is generally dropped in the standard present tense affirmative (e.g., макӏо) because it is not followed by any other suffix. However, it reappears when followed by another suffix, such as a negative marker (e.g., кӏорэп) or a case marker. Therefore, it is always visible in present tense dynamic participles.

Dynamic Verbs (Present Tense) Dynamic verbs (actions) always retain the suffix -рэ in the present tense participle because the case marker follows it.

Verb Form	Participle	Breakdown	Gloss	Translation
Макӏо	Кӏорэр	кӏо-рэ-р	go-DYN-ABS	"The one who is going."
Еплъы	Еплъырэр	е-плъы-рэ-р	DAT-look-DYN-ABS	"The one looking at it."

Static Verbs (Present Tense) For static verbs (states), there is a crucial distinction based on whether the suffix -рэ is used:

• No Suffix: Describes a current state (someone is doing it right now).
• With -рэ: Describes a habitual or frequentative action (someone usually/often does it).

Nuance	Verb Root	Participle	Breakdown	Translation
Current State (Right now)	Щыс	Щысыр	щыс-ыр	"The one who is sitting."
	ӏулъ	ӏулъым	ӏулъы-м	"(to) The one who is lying near."
Habitual (Usually/Often)	Щыс	Щысырэр	щыс-рэ-р	"The one who usually sits."
	ӏулъ	ӏулъырэм	ӏулъы-рэ-м	"(to) The one who usually lies near."

Past & Future Tenses In the past and future tenses, participles for both dynamic and static verbs are formed identically: the case marker is added directly to the tense suffix. The dynamic suffix -рэ is not used.

Tense	Verb Form	Participle	Breakdown	Gloss	Translation
Past	Еплъыгъ	Еплъыгъэмкӏэ	е-плъы-гъэ-мкӏэ	DAT-look-PST-INS	"Using the one who looked at it."
	Ылъэгъугъ	Ылъэгъугъэм	ы-лъэгъу-гъэ-м	3SG.ERG-see-PST-OBL	"(to) The one who saw it."
Future	Естышъущт	Естышъущтыр	е-сты-шъу-щты-р	DAT-give-POT-FUT-ABS	"The thing I can give to him"

Masdar (similar to gerund) is formed by adding the suffix -н (-n).

тхы-н "writing",

чъэ-н "running".

Masdar has grammatical cases:

Absolutive чъэны-р

Ergative чъэны-м

Instrumental чъэны-м-кӏэ

Adverbial чъэн-эу

In verbs, the negative meaning is expressed with the prefix -мы (usually before the root) or the suffix -эп/-п (usually after tense suffixes).

у-мы-тх "do not write" (prefix negation)

сы-тэджырэ-п "I am not getting up" (suffix negation)

Adyghe verbs have several forms to express different tenses; here are some of them:

Tense	Suffix	Example	Meaning
Present	~∅	макӏо [maːkʷʼa]	(s)he is going; (s)he goes
Simple past	~агъэ [~aːʁa]	кӏуагъэ [kʷʼaːʁa]	(s)he went
Discontinuous past	~гъагъ [~ʁaːʁ]	кӏогъагъ [kʷʼaʁaːʁ]	(s)he went (but not there anymore)
Pluperfect	~гъагъ [~ʁaːʁ]	кӏогъагъ [kʷʼaʁaːʁ]	(s)he had gone"
Categorical future	~н [~n]	кӏон [kʷʼan]	(s)he will go
Factual future	~щт [~ɕt]	кӏощт [kʷʼaɕt]	(s)he will go
Imperfect	~щтыгъ	кӏощтыгъ [kʷʼaɕtəʁ]	(s)he was going; (s)he used to go
Conditional perfect	~щтыгъ	кӏощтыгъ [kʷʼaɕtəʁ]	(s)he would have gone
Future perfect	~гъэщт [~ʁaɕt]	кӏуагъэщт [kʷʼaːʁaɕt]	(s)he will have gone
Recent past	~гъакӏ [~ʁaːt͡ʃʼ]	кӏогъакӏ [kʷʼaʁaːt͡ʃʼ]	(s)he just (recently) went

The simple past tense in Adyghe is typically formed by adding the suffix -агъ ([aːʁ]) or -ыгъ ([əʁ]). The choice of suffix and the behavior of the final root vowel follow specific morphological rules:

• Verbs ending in -э usually change to -а- before adding the suffix -гъ.
• Verbs ending in -ы or a consonant typically take the suffix -ыгъ.
• Dynamic prefixes (like ма- or мэ-) are dropped in the past tense.

Below are examples showing the transition from the present tense to the simple past for various verb valencies and endings.

Verb Type	Present Tense	Simple Past	Translation
Monovalent Intransitive (-э)	ар макӏо	ар кӏуагъ	"He goes" → "He went"
Monovalent Intransitive (-ы)	ар мэсты	ар стыгъ	"It burns" → "It burned"
Bivalent Intransitive (-ы)	ар ащ еплъы	ар ащ еплъыгъ	"He looks at him" → "He looked at him"
Bivalent Intransitive (-э)	ар ащ хэхьэ	ар ащ хэхьагъ	"He enters [into] it" → "He entered [into] it"
Bivalent Transitive (-ы)	ащ ар еукӏы	ащ ар ыукӏыгъ	"He kills him" → "He killed him"
Bivalent Transitive (-э)	ащ ар етхьалэ	ащ ар ытхьалагъ	"He drowns him" → "He drowned him"
Trivalent Transitive (-ы)	ащ ар ащ реты	ащ ар ащ ритыгъ	"He gives it to him" → "He gave it to him"
Trivalent Transitive (-э)	ащ ар ащ реӏо	ащ ар ащ риӏуагъ	"He tells it to him" → "He told it to him"
Static Verb	ар щыс	ар щысыгъ	"He is sitting" → "He was sitting"

Plurality	Person	Cyrillic	IPA	Meaning
Singular	First-person	сыкӏуагъ, седжагъ	[səkʷʼaːʁ], [sajd͡ʒaːʁ]	I went, I [have] read
	Second-person	укӏуагъ, уеджагъ	[wkʷʼaːʁ], [wajd͡ʒaːʁ]	You went, You [have] read
	Third-person	кӏуагъ, еджагъ	[kʷʼaːʁ], jad͡ʒaːʁ	He went, He [has] read
Plural	First-person	тыкӏуагъ, теджагъ	[təkʷʼaːʁ], tajd͡ʒaːʁ	We went, We [have] read
	Second-person	шъукӏуагъ, шъуеджагъ	[ʃʷkʷʼaːʁ], ʃʷajd͡ʒaːʁ	You (pl.) went, You [have] read
	Third-person	кӏуагъэх, еджагъэх	[kʷʼaːʁax], jad͡ʒaːʁax	They went, They [have] read

The pluperfect or discontinuous past tense is formed by adding the suffix ~гъагъ ([~ʁaːʁ]). This tense indicates that an action was completed in the past and often carries specific nuances:

Discontinuous Past: It implies that the result of the action no longer holds (e.g., "he had come, but he is gone now").^[4]

Past Perfect: It expresses that one action occurred before another event in the past.

Remote Past: It can be used to describe events that happened a long time ago.

Below are examples showing the transition from the present tense to the pluperfect for various verb valencies and endings. Note that for many verbs ending in -э, the vowel shifts to -о- or -э- before the pluperfect suffix.

Verb Type	Present Tense	Pluperfect	Translation
Monovalent Intransitive (-э)	ар макӏо	ар кӏогъагъ	"He goes" → "He had gone (but is back)"
Monovalent Intransitive (-ы)	ар мэсты	ар стыгъагъ	"It burns" → "It had burned"
Bivalent Intransitive (-ы)	ар ащ еплъы	ар ащ еплъыгъагъ	"He looks at him" → "He had looked at him"
Bivalent Intransitive (-э)	ар ащ хэхьэ	ар ащ хэхьэгъагъ	"He enters [into] it" → "He had entered [into] it"
Bivalent Transitive (-ы)	ащ ар еукӏы	ащ ар ыукӏыгъагъ	"He kills him" → "He had killed him"
Bivalent Transitive (-э)	ащ ар етхьалэ	ащ ар ытхьалэгъагъ	"He drowns him" → "He had drowned him"
Trivalent Transitive (-ы)	ащ ар ащ реты	ащ ар ащ ритыгъагъ	"He gives it to him" → "He had given it to him"
Trivalent Transitive (-э)	ащ ар ащ реӏо	ащ ар ащ риӏогъагъ	"He tells it to him" → "He had told it to him"
Static Verb	ар щыс	ар щысэгъагъ	"He is sitting" → "He had been sitting"

Plurality	Person	Cyrillic	IPA	Meaning
Singular	First-person	сыкӏогъагъ, седжэгъагъ	[səkʷʼaʁaːʁ], [sajd͡ʒaʁaːʁ]	I had gone, I had read
	Second-person	укӏогъагъ, уеджэгъагъ	[wkʷʼaʁaːʁ], [wajd͡ʒaʁaːʁ]	You had gone, You had read
	Third-person	кӏогъагъ, еджэгъагъ	[kʷʼaʁaːʁ], jad͡ʒaʁaːʁ	He had gone, He had read
Plural	First-person	тыкӏогъагъ, теджэгъагъ	[təkʷʼaʁaːʁ], tajd͡ʒaʁaːʁ	We had gone, We had read
	Second-person	шъукӏогъагъ, шъуеджэгъагъ	[ʃʷkʷʼaʁaːʁ], ʃʷajd͡ʒaʁaːʁ	You (pl.) had gone, You had read
	Third-person	кӏогъагъэх, еджэгъагъэх	[kʷʼaʁaːʁax], jad͡ʒaʁaːʁax	They had gone, They had read

The present tense in Adyghe has no additional suffixes, but in dynamic verbs, the pronoun prefix's vowels change form ы to э or е, for instance, сышхыгъ "I ate" becomes сэшхы "I eat" (сы → сэ), ылъэгъугъ "(s)he saw" becomes елъэгъу "(s)he sees" (ы → е).

Examples :

• кӏо [kʷʼa] go → макӏо [makʷʼa] (s)he goes
• къакӏу [qaːkʷʼ] come → къакӏо [qakʷʼa] (s)he comes
• шхэ [ʃxa] eat! → машхэ [maʃxaʁ] (s)he eats
• ӏо [ʔʷa] say → еӏо [jəʔʷa] (s)he says
• еплъ [japɬ] look at → еплъы [japɬə] (s)he looks at
• шхы [ʃxə] eat it → ешхы [jəʃxə] (s)he eats it

Plurality	Person	Cyrillic	IPA	Meaning
Singular	First-person	сэкӏо, седжэ	[sakʷʼa], [sajd͡ʒa]	I go, I read
	Second-person	окӏо, уеджэ	[wakʷʼa], [wajd͡ʒa]	You go, You read
	Third-person	макӏо, еджэ	[maːkʷʼa], [jad͡ʒa]	He goes, He reads
Plural	First-person	тэкӏо, теджэ	[takʷʼa], [tajd͡ʒa]	We go, We read
	Second-person	шъокӏо, шъуеджэ	[ʃʷakʷʼa], [ʃʷajd͡ʒa]	You (pl.) go, You read
	Third-person	макӏох, еджэх	[maːkʷʼax], [jad͡ʒax]	They go, They read

The future tense is normally indicated by the suffix ~(э)щт [(a)ɕt] (close to future simple). This tense usually expresses some certainty.

Examples :

• макӏо [maːkʷʼa] (s)he is going → кӏощт [kʷʼaɕt] (s)he will go
• къакӏо [qaːkʷʼa] (s)he is coming → къэкӏощт [qakʷʼaɕt] (s)he will come
• машхэ [maːʃxa] (s)he is eating → шхэщт [ʃxaɕt] (s)he will eat
• еӏо [jaʔʷa] (s)he says → ыӏощт [jəʔʷaɕt] (s)he will say
• еплъы [jajapɬə] (s)he looks at → еплъыщт [japɬəɕt] (s)he will look at
• ешхы [jaʃxə] (s)he eats it → ышхыщт [jəʃxəaɕt] (s)he will eat it

Plurality	Person	Cyrillic	IPA	Meaning
Singular	First-person	сыкӏощт, седжэщт	[səkʷʼaɕt], [sajd͡ʒaɕt]	I will go, I will read
	Second-person	укӏощт, уеджэщт	[wkʷʼaɕt], [wajd͡ʒaɕt]	You will go, You will read
	Third-person	кӏощт, еджэщт	[kʷʼaɕt], [jad͡ʒaɕt]	He will go, He will read
Plural	First-person	тыкӏощт, теджэщт	[təkʷʼaɕt], [tajd͡ʒaɕt]	We will go, We will read
	Second-person	шъукӏощт, шъуеджэщт	[ʃʷkʷʼaɕt], [ʃʷajd͡ʒaɕt]	You (pl.) will go, You will read
	Third-person	кӏощтых, еджэщтых	[kʷʼaɕtəx], [jad͡ʒaɕtəx]	They will go, They will read

The imperfect tense is formed with the additional suffix ~щтыгъ [ɕtəʁ] to the verb. It can have meanings similar to the English "was walking" or "used to walk".

Examples :

• кӏо /kʷʼa/ go → кӏощтыгъ /makʷʼaɕtəʁ/ (s)he was going.
• къакӏу /qaːkʷʼ/ come → къэкӏощтыгъ /qakʷʼaɕtəʁ/ (s)he was coming .
• шхэ /ʃxa/ eat! → шхэщтыгъ /maʃxaɕtəʁ/ (s)he was eating.
• ӏо /ʔʷa/ say → ыӏощтыгъ /jəʔʷaɕtəʁ/ (s)he was saying.
• еплъ /japɬ/ look at → еплъыщтыгъ /japɬəɕtəʁ/ (s)he was looking at.
• шхы /ʃxə/ eat it → ышхыщтыгъ /jəʃxəɕtəʁ/ (s)he was eating it.

Plurality	Person	Cyrillic	IPA	Meaning
Singular	First-person	сыкӏощтыгъ, седжэщтыгъ	[səkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [sajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	I was going, I was reading
	Second-person	укӏощтыгъ, уеджэщтыгъ	[wkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [wajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	You were going, You were reading
	Third-person	кӏощтыгъ, еджэщтыгъ	[kʷʼaɕtəʁ], [jad͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	(S)he was going, (S)he was reading
Plural	First-person	тыкӏощтыгъ, теджэщтыгъ	[təkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [tajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	We were going, We were reading
	Second-person	шъукӏощтыгъ, шъуеджэщтыгъ	[ʃʷkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [ʃʷajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	You (pl.) were going, You (pl.) were reading
	Third-person	кӏощтыгъэх, еджэщтыгъэх	[kʷʼaɕtəʁax], [jad͡ʒaɕtəʁax]	They were going, They were reading

This suffix can also be used to express an action that someone used to do in the past.

The conditional perfect is indicated by the suffix ~щтыгъ /ɕtəʁ/ as well.

Examples :

• кӏо [kʷʼa] go → кӏощтыгъ [makʷʼaɕtəʁ] (s)he would have gone.
• къакӏу [qaːkʷʼ] come → къэкӏощтыгъ [qakʷʼaɕtəʁ] (s)he would have come
• шхэ [ʃxa] eat! → шхэщтыгъ [maʃxaɕtəʁ] (s)he would have eaten.
• ӏо [ʔʷa] say → ыӏощтыгъ [jəʔʷaɕtəʁ] (s)he would have said.
• еплъ [japɬ] look at → еплъыщтыгъ [japɬəɕtəʁ] (s)he would have looked at
• шхы [ʃxə] eat it → ышхыщтыгъ [jəʃxəɕtəʁ] (s)he would have eaten it.

Plurality	Person	Cyrillic	IPA	Meaning
Singular	First-person	сыкӏощтыгъ, седжэщтыгъ	[səkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [sajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	I would have gone, I would have read
	Second-person	укӏощтыгъ, уеджэщтыгъ	[wkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [wajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	You would have gone, You would have read
	Third-person	кӏощтыгъ, еджэщтыгъ	[kʷʼaɕtəʁ], [jad͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	(S)he would have gone, (S)he would have read
Plural	First-person	тыкӏощтыгъ, теджэщтыгъ	[təkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [tajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	We would have gone, We would have read
	Second-person	шъукӏощтыгъ, шъуеджэщтыгъ	[ʃʷkʷʼaɕtəʁ], [ʃʷajd͡ʒaɕtəʁ]	You (pl.) would have gone, You would have read
	Third-person	кӏощтыгъэх, еджэщтыгъэх	[kʷʼaɕtəʁax], [jad͡ʒaɕtəʁax]	They would have gone, They would have read

The future perfect tense is indicated by adding the suffix ~гъэщт or ~гъагъэщт. This tense indicates action that will be finished or expected to be finished at a certain time in the future.

Examples :

• кӏо [kʷʼa] go → кӏогъэщт [makʷʼaʁaɕt] (s)he will have gone.
• къакӏу [qaːkʷʼ] come → къэкӏогъэщт [qakʷʼaʁaɕt] (s)he will have come.
• шӏы [ʃʼə] do it → ышӏыгъагъэщт [ət͡ʃʼəʁaːʁaɕt] (s)he will have done it.
• ӏо [ʔʷa] say → ыӏогъэщт [jəʔʷaʁaɕt] (s)he will have said it.
• еплъ [japɬ] look at → еплъыгъэщт [japɬəʁaɕt] (s)he will have looked at.
• шхы [ʃxə] eat it → ышхыгъэщт [jəʃxəʁaɕt] (s)he will have eaten it.

Plurality	Person	Cyrillic	IPA	Meaning
Singular	First-person	сыкӏогъэщт, седжэгъэщт	[sɘkʷʼaʁaɕt], [sajd͡ʒaʁaɕt]	I will have gone, I will have read
	Second-person	укӏогъэщт, уеджэгъэщт	[wkʷʼaʁaɕt], [wajd͡ʒaʁaɕt]	You will have gone, You will have read
	Third-person	кӏогъэщт, еджэгъэщт	[kʷʼaʁaɕt], [jad͡ʒaʁaɕt]	(S)he will have gone, (S)he will have read
Plural	First-person	тыкӏогъэщт, теджэгъэщт	[tɘkʷʼaʁaɕt], [tajd͡ʒaʁaɕt]	We will have gone, We will have read
	Second-person	шъукӏогъэщт, шъуеджэгъэщт	[ʃʷkʷʼaʁaɕt], [ʃʷajd͡ʒaʁaɕt]	You (pl.) will have gone, You will have read
	Third-person	кӏощтыгъэх, еджэгъэщтэх	[kʷʼaɕtəʁax], [jad͡ʒaʁaɕtax]	They will have gone, They will have read

Adyghe infinitives are created by suffixing -н (/-n/) to the verb stem.

Verb Stem	Infinitive	IPA	Meaning
кӏо~	кӏон	[kʷʼan]	"to go"
чъые~	чъыен	[t͡ʂəjan]	"to sleep"
гущыӏэ~	гущыӏэн	[ɡʷəɕəːʔan]	"to talk"

Unlike in many European languages, Adyghe infinitives can retain person markers. This allows the infinitive to indicate who is performing the action.

• Present Tense: ошхэ /waʃxa/ — "you are eating"
• Infinitive: ушхэн /wəʃxan/ — "(for) you to eat"

Due to the interchangeability of nouns and verbs in Adyghe, infinitives can be constructed from nouns or adjectives. These result in verbs describing the state of "being" that noun or adjective.

Root Word	Meaning	Infinitive	Meaning
фабэ	hot	фэбэн	"to be hot"
чэщы	night	чэщын	"to be night"
дахэ	pretty	дэхэн	"to be pretty"

Usage Examples

The infinitive is often used with modal words like фай ("must" or "want").

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Пшъашъэр дэхэн фай.	Girl-ABS to-be-pretty must	"The girl must be pretty."
Тиунэ укъихьан пае, укъэбзэн фай.	Our-house you-enter-INF in-order-to, you-clean-be-INF must	"To come inside our house, you must be clean."

For the future tense or to express purpose (supine), the suffix -нэу (/-naw/) is used. This is essentially the infinitive marker -н combined with the adverbial case marker -эу.

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Сэ къыосӏонэу сыфай.	I DIR-2SG-1SG-say-INF-FUT 1SG-want	"I want to tell you."
Цӏыфым шъушхэнэу къышъуиӏуагъ.	Person-ERG 2PL-eat-INF-FUT DIR-2PL-3SG-said	"The person told you (pl.) to eat."

Morphology is a central component of Circassian grammar. A single Circassian word, particularly a verb, can function as a complete sentence due to its polypersonal nature. Through a rich system of prefixes and suffixes, a verb can express the person, number, and role of the subject, direct object, and indirect object, as well as tense, mood, negation, location, and direction.

Adyghe utilizes a variety of prefixes to alter the meaning or valency of a verb. Most verbal prefixes either express direction (on, under, etc.) or increase the valency (adding participants like beneficiaries or co-actors).

Negation in Adyghe is expressed through two primary morphemes, depending on the context and tense.

1. Infix/Prefix ~мы~ Used primarily in the imperative mood (commands) and with participles.

Base Verb	Meaning	Negative Form	Meaning
кӏо	go!	умыкӏу	don't go!
шхы	eat!	умышх	don't eat!
шъучъый	sleep! (pl)	шъумычъый	don't sleep! (pl)

2. Suffix ~эп Used primarily in indicative tenses (past, present, future). It usually attaches to the very end of the verb complex.

Base Verb	Meaning	Negative Form	Meaning
кӏуагъэ	(s)he went	кӏуагъэп	(s)he didn't go
машхэ	(s)he is eating	шхэрэп	(s)he is not eating
еджэщт	(s)he will read	еджэщтэп	(s)he will not read

The prefix гъэ~ (/ʁa/) indicates causation (making or letting someone do something). It increases the valency of the verb by adding a causer.

Base Word	Meaning	Causative Form	Meaning
фабэ	hot	егъэфабэ	(s)he heats it
чъыӏэ	cold	егъэучъыӏы	(s)he chills it
макӏо	(s)he goes	егъакӏо	(s)he sends him/her
еджэ	(s)he reads	регъаджэ	(s)he teaches him/her

Examples:

• Кӏалэм ышы тучаным егъакӏо. — "The boy sends his brother to the shop."
• Пшъашъэм итхылъ сэ сыригъэджагъ. — "The girl allowed me to read her book."

The prefix дэ~ (/da/) indicates an action performed together with someone ("with").

Base Verb	Meaning	Comitative Form	Meaning
макӏо	(s)he goes	дакӏо	(s)he goes with him/her
еплъы	(s)he looks at	деплъы	(s)he looks at it with him/her
чӏэс	(s)he sits in	дэчӏэс	(s)he sits in it with him/her

Examples:

• Кӏалэр пшъашъэм дэгущыӏэ. — "The boy is talking with the girl."
• Кӏэлэцӏыкӏухэр зэдэджэгух. — "The kids are playing together."
• Сэрэ сышырэ тучанэм тызэдакӏо. — "Me and my brother are going to the shop together."

The prefix фэ~ (/fa/) indicates an action performed for someone's benefit ("for").

Base Verb	Meaning	Benefactive Form	Meaning
макӏо	(s)he goes	факӏо	(s)he goes for him/her
еплъы	(s)he looks at	феплъы	(s)he looks at it for him/her
чӏэс	(s)he sits in	фэчӏэс	(s)he sits in it for him/her

Examples:

• Кӏалэр пшъашъэм факӏо тучаным. — "The boy is going to the shop for the girl."
• Кӏалэм псы лӏым фехьы. — "The boy is bringing water for the man."
• Къэсфэщэф зыгорэ сешъонэу. — "Buy something for me to drink."

The prefix шӏу~ (/ʃʷʼa/) indicates an action performed against someone's interest or will. It strongly implies taking something away from someone.

Base Verb	Meaning	Malefactive Form	Meaning
ехьы	(s)he carries it	шӏуехьы	(s)he takes it from him
етыгъу	(s)he steals it	шӏуетыгъу	(s)he steals it from him
ештэ	(s)he takes it	шӏуештэ	(s)he takes it away from him
ешхы	(s)he eats	шӏуешхы	(s)he eats his food (loss)

Examples:

• Сичӏыгу къэсшӏуахьыгъ. — "They took my land away from me."
• Сянэ симашинэ къэсшӏодищыгъ. — "My mother took my car out (against my interest/will)."
• Кӏалэм шӏуешхы пшъашъэм ишхын. — "The boy is eating the girl's food (depriving her of it)."

Adyghe uses suffixes to express aspect, capability, manner, and other nuances.

The verbal suffix ~жь (/ʑ/) indicates the repetition of an action ("again") or the return to a previous state/location ("back"). It can also denote the completion of an action.

Base Verb	Meaning	Frequentative Form	Meaning
ехьы	(s)he carries it	ехьыжьы	(s)he takes it back/again
ештэ	(s)he takes it	ештэжьы	(s)he takes it back
ешхы	(s)he eats	ешхыжьы	(s)he eats again

Examples:

• Лӏым иӏофы ешӏыжьы. — "The man is doing his job again."
• Хым сыкӏожьынэу сыфай. — "I want to return to the sea."
• Экзамыным сыфеджэжьыгъ. — "I finished studying for the exam."

The verbal suffix ~эу (/aw/) creates a converb, designating an action that takes place simultaneously with another action ("while").

Base Verb	Meaning	Duration Form	Meaning
макӏо	(s)he goes	кӏоу	while going
ештэ	(s)he takes it	ештэу	while taking it
ешхы	(s)he eats	ешхэу	while eating

Examples:

• Сыкӏоу слъэгъугъ кӏалэр. — "While I was going, I saw the boy."
• Сянэ тиунэ ытхьэкӏэу унэм сыкъихьажьыгъ. — "I came home while my mother was washing the house."
• Шхын щымыӏэу тыкъэнагъ. — "We are left with no food."

The verbal suffix ~шъу (/ʃʷə/) designates the ability or potential to perform the indicated action ("can", "able to").

Base Verb	Meaning	Capability Form	Meaning
ехьы	(s)he carries it	ехьышъу	(s)he can carry it
ештэ	(s)he takes it	ештэшъу	(s)he can take it
ешхы	(s)he eats	ешхышъу	(s)he can eat

Examples:

• Лӏыжъыр мэчъэшъу. — "The old man is capable of running."
• Экзамыным сыфеджэшъу. — "I can study for the exam."
• Фылымым сеплъышъугъэп. — "I could not watch the movie."

The verbal suffix ~акӏэ (/aːt͡ʃʼa/) expresses the manner in which the action is performed. It effectively turns the verb into a noun meaning "way of [verb]ing".

Base Verb	Meaning	Manner Noun	Meaning
макӏо	(s)he goes	кӏуакӏэ	gait / way of walking
е1о	(s)he says it	1уаакӏэ	way of saying
еджэ	(s)he reads/studies	еджакӏэ	way of studying

Examples:

• Пшъашъэм икӏуакӏэ дахэ. — "The girl's way of walking is beautiful."
• Кӏалэм иеджакӏэ дэгъоп. — "The boy's way of studying is not good."
• Унэм ишӏыкӏэ тэрэзэп. — "The house is not structured right"

Alternatively, manner can be expressed using the prefix зэрэ~ (/zara/) combined with a case marker on the verb, though this functions syntactically as a relative clause ("how (s)he does it").

• Пшъашъэр зэрэкӏорэр дахэ. — "The way the girl goes is beautiful."

Adyghe verbs change their form to express the attitude of the speaker toward the action (mood). This includes commands, conditions, wishes, and questions.

The imperative mood is used to give commands or make requests.

• **Singular (2nd Person):** Uses the bare verb root with no additional affixes.
• **Plural (2nd Person):** Uses the prefix шъу- (/ʃʷə-/) attached to the root.

Verb Meaning	Singular (You)	IPA	Plural (You all)	IPA
To go	кӏо	[kʷʼa]	шъукӏу	[ʃʷəkʷʼ]
To take	штэ	[ʃta]	шъушт	[ʃʷəʃt]
To write	тхы	[txə]	шъутх	[ʃʷətx]
To eat	шхэ	[ʃxa]	шъушх	[ʃʷəʃx]
To look	еплъ	[japɬ]	шъуеплъ	[ʃʷajpɬ]
To wait	еж	[jaʒ]	шъуеж	[ʃʷajʒ]

The conditional mood expresses a condition ("if"). It is formed by the suffix ~мэ (/~ma/).

Adyghe	Analysis	Translation
Сыкӏомэ	1SG-go-COND	"If I go"
Къещхымэ	DIR-rain-COND	"If it rains"
Ар дэгъумэ	That good-COND	"If that is good"
Уфаемэ	2SG-want-COND	"If you want"

The concessive mood expresses a contrast or concession ("even if", "although"). It is formed by the suffix ~ми (/~mi/).

Adyghe	Analysis	Translation
Сыкӏоми	1SG-go-CONC	"Even if I go"
Къымыщхыгъэми	DIR-NEG-rain-PST-CONC	"Even if it didn't rain"
Лъэшыми	Strong-CONC	"Although he is strong"
Уимыӏэми	2SG-POSS-NEG-have-CONC	"Even if you don't have it"

The optative mood expresses a wish, desire, or hypothetical outcome ("would that", "if only"). It is formed by the complex suffix ~гъот (/~ʁwat/), often attached to the past tense form of the verb.

Adyghe	Analysis	Translation
Укӏуагъот	2SG-go-PST-OPT	"If only you went / Would that you went"
Къэсыгъагъот	DIR-arrive-PST-OPT	"I wish he had arrived"
Сычъыягъот	1SG-sleep-PST-OPT	"I wish I could sleep"

The interrogative mood is used to ask Yes/No questions. It is marked by the suffix ~а (/~aː/).

Adyghe	Analysis	Translation
Мада?	sew-Q	"Is he sewing?"
Кӏуагъа?	went-Q	"Did he go?"
Уфая?	2SG-want-Q	"Do you want?"
Даха?	Beautiful-Q	"Is she beautiful?"

This mood asks a question while expecting a positive answer ("isn't it?", "right?"). It is marked by the suffix ~ба (/~baː/).

Adyghe	Analysis	Translation
Макӏоба?	go-NEG.Q	"He is going, isn't he?"
Уфаеба?	2SG-want-NEG.Q	"You want it, right?"
Кӏуагъэба?	went-NEG.Q	"He went, didn't he?"
Шӏуба?	Good-NEG.Q	"It is good, isn't it?"

In Adyghe, the positional prefixes are expressing being in different positions and places and can also express the direction of the verb. Here is the positional conjugation of some dynamic verbs, showing how the prefix changes the indicated direction of the verb:

Position	Prefix	Example
		Looking	Throwing
Body position/Pose	щы~ [ɕə]	щеплъэ [ɕajpɬa] "(s)he is looking at that place"	щедзы [ɕajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing at that place"
On	те~ [taj]	теплъэ [ɕajpɬa] "(s)he is looking on"	тедзэ [ɕajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing at"
Under	чӏэ~ [ʈ͡ʂʼa]	чӏаплъэ [ʈ͡ʂʼaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking under"	чӏедзэ [ʈ͡ʂʼajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing under"
Through/Within some mass	хэ~ [xa]	хаплъэ [xaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking through"	хедзэ [xajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing through"
Within some area	дэ~ [da]	даплъэ [daːpɬa] "(s)he is looking at some area"	дедзэ [dajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing at some area"
Inside an object		даплъэ [daːpɬa] "(s)he is looking inside an object"	дедзэ [dajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing inside an object"
Around	ӏу~ [ʔʷə]	ӏуаплъэ [ʔʷaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking around"	ӏуедзэ [ʔʷajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing around"
Inside	и~ [jə~]	еплъэ [japɬa] "(s)he is looking inside"	редзэ [rajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing inside"
Hanged/Attached	пы [pə]	пэплъэ [papɬa] "(s)he is searching by looking"	педзэ [pajd͡za] "(s)he is hanging by throwing"
Behind	къо [qʷa]	къуаплъэ [qʷaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking behind"	къуедзэ [qʷajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing behind"
Aside	го [ɡʷa]	гуаплъэ [ɡʷaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking aside"	гуедзэ [ɡʷajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing aside"
In front of	пэӏу [paʔʷə]	пэӏуаплъэ [paʔʷaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking in front of"	пэӏуедзэ [paʔʷajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing in front of"
Backwards	зэкӏ [zat͡ʃʼ]	зэкӏаплъэ [zat͡ʃʼaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking backwards"	зэкӏедзэ [zat͡ʃʼajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing backwards"
Inside within	кӏоцӏы [kʷʼat͡sʼə]	кӏоцӏаплъэ [kʷʼat͡sʼaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking within inside"	кӏоцӏедзэ [kʷʼat͡sʼajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing within inside"
Near	кӏэлъыры [ּ֫t͡ʃʼaɬərə]	кӏэлъырыплъэ [t͡ʃʼaɬərəpɬa] "(s)he is looking near"	кӏэлъыредзы [t͡ʃʼaɬərajd͡zə] "(s)he is throwing near"
Toward	лъы [ɬə]	лъэплъэ [ɬapɬa] "(s)he is looking toward"	лъедзы [ɬajd͡zə] "(s)he is throwing toward"
Past	блэ [bɮa]	блэплъы [bɮapɬə] "(s)he is looking past"	бледзэ [bɮajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing past"
Toward the head	шъхьары [ʂħaːrə]	шъхьарыплъы [ʂħarapɬə] "(s)he is looking at the head"	шъхьаредзы [ʂħarajd͡zə] "(s)he is throwing at the head"
Over	шъхьадэ [ʂħaːda]	шъхьэдэплъы [ʂħadapɬə] "(s)he is looking pass over"	шъхьэдедзы [ʂħadajd͡zə] "(s)he is throwing pass over"
Over and beyond	шъхьапыры [ʂħaːpərə]	шъхьапырыплъы [ʂħaːpərəpɬə] "(s)he is looking beyond"	шъхьапыредзы [ʂħaːpərajd͡zə] "(s)he is throwing beyond"
Directly at	жэхэ [ʒaxa]	жэхаплъэ [ʒaxaːpɬa] "(s)he is glaring at one's face"	жэхедзэ [ʒaxajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing at one's face"
Directed toward a mouth	жэдэ~ [ʒada~]	жэдаплъэ [ʒadaːpɬa] "(s)he is looking at a mouth"	жэдедзэ [ʒadajd͡za] "(s)he is throwing at a mouth"

Adding a positional prefix to a verb often alters its valency by introducing a new spatial or locative argument. This new argument is always placed in the oblique case (marked by -м). The behavior of the verb and its arguments changes depending on its original transitivity.

When a positional prefix is attached to a monovalent intransitive verb, it adds a new valency. Because they don't have an oblique case argument by default, the new argument serves as the locative target, effectively turning it into a bivalent intransitive verb. Notice how the default dynamic 3rd-person prefix (мэ-/ма-) drops when the positional prefix is introduced.

Sentence	Word Breakdown	Gloss	Function	Translation
Ар мэплъэ.	ар мэ-плъэ	He 3SG.ABS-look	S VERB	"He is looking."
Ар ащ теплъэ.	ар ащ ø-те-плъэ	He that 3SG.ABS-on-look	S IO VERB	"He is looking on/at that."
Кӏалэр мэгущыӏэ.	кӏалэ-р мэ-гущыӏэ	boy-ABS 3SG.ABS-speak	S VERB	"The boy is speaking."
Кӏалэр пшъашъэм тегущыӏэ.	кӏалэ-р пшъашъэ-м ø-те-гущыӏэ	boy-ABS girl-OBL 3SG.ABS-on-speak	S IO VERB	"The boy is speaking about the girl."
Кӏалэр матхэ.	кӏалэ-р ма-тхэ	boy-ABS 3SG.ABS-write	S VERB	"The boy is writing."
Кӏалэр ӏанэм тетхэ.	кӏалэ-р ӏанэ-м ø-те-тхэ	boy-ABS table-OBL 3SG.ABS-on-write	S IO VERB	"The boy is writing on the table."
Сэ о сыптегущыӏэ.	сэ о сы-п-те-гущыӏэ	I you 1SG.ABS-2SG.OBL-on-speak	S IO VERB	"I talk about you."
О сэ укъыстегущыӏэ.	о сэ у-къы-с-те-гущыӏэ	You me 2SG.ABS-DIR-1SG.OBL-on-speak	S IO VERB	"You talk about me."
О оплъэ.	о о-плъэ	You 2SG.ABS-look	S VERB	"You look."
О сэ укъысэплъэ.	о сэ у-къы-с-э-плъэ	You me 2SG.ABS-DIR-1SG.OBL-DAT-look	S IO VERB	"You look at me."
О сэ укъыстеплъэ.	о сэ у-къы-с-те-плъэ	You me 2SG.ABS-DIR-1SG.OBL-on-look	S IO VERB	"You look on/at me."
Сэ о скъыптеплъэ.	сэ о с-къы-п-те-плъэ	I you 1SG.ABS-DIR-2SG.OBL-on-look	S IO VERB	"I look on/at you."

Bivalent intransitive verbs cannot simply take a new positional preposition because they already have an argument in the oblique case behaving as a dative/target. Instead, the positional prefix replaces the standard directional prefix, shifting the existing oblique noun/pronoun from a general dative target to a specific locative one.

Sentence	Word Breakdown	Gloss	Function	Translation
Кӏалэр пшынэм ео.	кӏалэ-р пшынэ-м ø-е-о	boy-ABS accordion-OBL 3SG.ABS-DAT-hit	S IO VERB	"The boy hits the accordion."
Кӏалэр пшынэм тео.	кӏалэ-р пшынэ-м ø-те-о	boy-ABS accordion-OBL 3SG.ABS-on-hit	S IO VERB	"The boy hits on the accordion."
Сэ сэо.	сэ с-э-о	I 1SG.ABS-DAT-hit	S VERB	"I hit."
Сэ о сыкъыоо.	сэ о сы-къы-о-о	I you 1SG.ABS-DIR-2SG.OBL-hit	S IO VERB	"I hit you."
Сэ о сыптео.	сэ о сы-п-те-о	I you 1SG.ABS-2SG.OBL-on-hit	S IO VERB	"I hit on you."

Standard bivalent transitive verbs have an ergative subject and an absolutive direct object, but no oblique role. The addition of a positional prefix introduces a new locative argument in the oblique case, turning the verb into a trivalent transitive verb. Note how the positional prefix stacks with the ergative marker.

Sentence	Word Breakdown	Gloss	Function	Translation
Кӏалэм мыжъор едзы.	кӏалэ-м мыжъо-р ø-е-дзы	boy-ERG stone-ABS 3SG.ABS-3SG.ERG-throw	A O VERB	"The boy throws the stone."
Кӏалэм мыжъор хым хедзэ.	кӏалэ-м мыжъо-р хы-м ø-х-е-дзэ	boy-ERG stone-ABS sea-OBL 3SG.ABS-in-3SG.ERG-throw	A O IO VERB	"The boy throws the stone into the sea."
Кӏалэм гущыӏэр етхы.	кӏалэ-м гущыӏэ-р ø-е-тхы	boy-ERG word-ABS 3SG.ABS-3SG.ERG-write	A O VERB	"The boy writes the word."
Кӏалэм гущыӏэр ӏанэм тетхы.	кӏалэ-м гущыӏэ-р ӏанэ-м ø-те-т-хы	boy-ERG word-ABS table-OBL 3SG.ABS-on-3SG.ERG-write	A O IO VERB	"The boy writes the word on the table."
Кӏалэм пшъашъэр елъэгъу.	кӏалэ-м пшъашъэ-р ø-е-лъэгъу	boy-ERG girl-ABS 3SG.ABS-3SG.ERG-see	A O VERB	"The boy sees the girl."
Кӏалэм пшъашъэр чъыгым чӏелъагъо.	кӏалэ-м пшъашъэ-р чъыгы-м ø-чӏ-е-лъагъо	boy-ERG girl-ABS tree-OBL 3SG.ABS-under-3SG.ERG-see	A O IO VERB	"The boy sees the girl under the tree."
Сэ о осэлъэгъу.	сэ о о-с-э-лъэгъу	I you 2SG.ABS-1SG.ERG-PRS-see	A O VERB	"I see you."
Сэ о унашъхьэм утесэлъэгъу.	сэ о у-нашъхьэ-м у-те-с-э-лъэгъу	I you 2SG-head-OBL 2SG.ABS-on-1SG.ERG-PRS-see	A O IO VERB	"I see you on your head."
О сэ унашъхьэм стеолъэгъу.	о сэ у-нашъхьэ-м с-те-о-лъэгъу	You me 2SG-head-OBL 1SG.ABS-on-2SG.ERG-see	A O IO VERB	"You see me on your head."

Trivalent transitive verbs (also called ditransitive verbs) cannot take a positional prefix. This is because these verbs inherently require three arguments (Agent, Theme, and Recipient/Goal), meaning their oblique case slot is already occupied. Adding a locative positional prefix would conflict with the existing indirect object argument structure.

In Adyghe, certain verb roots denote a general sense of motion—such as entering, exiting, removing, or falling—but they cannot exist on their own. They inherently require a positional prefix to specify the spatial nature of the action.

Below is a matrix showing how these bound motion roots combine with common positional prefixes: те- (on), чӏэ- (under), и- (inside), and хэ- (within a mass/liquid).

Note: For the transitive roots (хын and фын), the 3rd-person singular ergative marker -е- stacks and merges with the positional prefix (e.g., чӏэ + е + хы + н = чӏехын).

Root	Action	те- (On)	чӏэ- (Under)	и- (Inside)	хэ- (Within Mass)
-хьан	to enter / step into	техьан "to step on"	чӏэхьан "to step under"	ихьан "to enter (inside)"	хэхьан "to enter (water/crowd)"
-кӏын	to exit / go off	текӏын "to get off"	чӏэкӏын "to exit from under"	икӏын "to exit (inside)"	хэкӏын "to exit (water/crowd)"
-хын (transitive)	to take off / remove	техын "to take off (from top)"	чӏехын "to take out from under"	ихын "to take out from inside"	хехын "to take out of (a mass)"
-фын (transitive)	to drive off / chase	тефын "to drive off (the top)"	чӏефын "to drive from under"	ифын "to drive out of (inside)"	хефын "to drive out of (a mass)"
-зын	to drop / fall off	тезын "to drop off (the top)"	чӏэзын "to drop from under"	изын "to drop out of (inside)"	хэзын "to drop out of (a mass)"
-лъэдэн	to run into	телъэдэн "to run onto"	чӏэлъэдэн "to run under"	илъэдэн "to run into (inside)"	хэлъэдэн "to run into (a mass)"
-шъутын	to exit running	тешъутын "to run off (the top)"	чӏэшъутын "to run out from under"	ишъутын "to run out of (inside)"	хэшъутын "to run out of (a mass)"
-фэн	to fall	тефэн "to fall on"	чӏэфэн "to fall under"	ифэн "to fall inside"	хэфэн "to fall into (a mass)"

Here is the positional conjugation of some steady-state verbs, showing how the root changes the indicated position:

	prefix	stands	sits	lies
Body position/Pose	щы~ [ɕə]	щыт [ɕət]	щыс [ɕəs]	щылъ [ɕəɬ]
On	те~ [taj]	тет [tat]	тес [tas]	телъ [taɬ]
Under	чӏэ~ [ʈ͡ʂʼa]	чӏэт [ʈ͡ʂʼat]	чӏэс [ʈ͡ʂʼas]	чӏэлъ [ʈ͡ʂʼaɬ]
Among	хэ~ [xa]	хэт [xat]	хэс [xas]	хэлъ [xaɬ]
Within some mass
Within some area	дэ~ [da]	дэт [dat]	дэс [das]	дэлъ [daɬ]
Inside an object
Around	ӏу~ [ʔʷə]	ӏут [ʔʷət]	ӏyc [ʔʷəs]	ӏулъ [ʔʷəɬ]
Inside	и~ [jə]	ит [jət]	иc [jəs]	илъ [jəɬ]
Hanged	пы~ [pə]	пыт [pət]	пыc [pəs]	пылъ [pəɬ]
Attached
Behind	къо~ [qʷa]	къот [qʷat]	къоc [qʷas]	къолъ [qʷaɬ]
Aside	го~ [ɡʷa]	гот [ɡʷat]	гоc [ɡʷas]	голъ [ɡʷaɬ]
Inside within	кӏоцӏы~ [kʷʼat͡sʼə]	кӏоцӏыт [kʷʼat͡sʼət]	кӏоцӏыc [kʷʼat͡sʼəs]	кӏоцӏылъ [kʷʼat͡sʼəɬ]

In Adyghe, verbal direction is indicated by a combination of prefixes and specific vowels within the verb stem (affixes).

• Towards (Motion To): Typically marked by the prefix + the vowel э (/a/ or /e/).
• Away (Motion From): Typically marked by the prefix + the vowel ы (/ə/).

The following table illustrates these discontinuous affixes (circumfixes) for common verbs.

Base Verb	Orientation	Towards (Motion To)			Away (Motion From)
		Affixes	Form	Meaning	Affixes	Form	Meaning
пкӏэн to jump	On	те-...-э-	тепкӏэн	to jump onto	те-...-ы-	тепкӏын	to jump off
	Among	хэ-...-э-	хэпкӏэн	to jump into	хэ-...-ы-	хэпкӏын	to jump out of
	Inside	и-...-э-	ипкӏэн	to jump in	и-...-ы-	ипкӏын	to jump out
дзын to throw	On	те-...-э-	тедзэн	to throw onto	те-...-ы-	тедзын	to throw off
	Among	хэ-...-э-	хэдзэн	to throw into	хэ-...-ы-	хэдзын	to throw out
	Inside	и-...-э-	идзэн	to throw inside	и-...-ы-	идзын	to throw out
плъэн to look	On	те-...-э-	теплъэн	to look onto	те-...-ы-	теплъын	to look from atop
	Among	хэ-...-э-	хэплъэн	to look into	хэ-...-ы-	хэплъын	to look out from
	Inside	и-...-э-	иплъэн	to look inside	и-...-ы-	иплъын	to look out from
тӏэрэн to drop	On	те-...-э-	тетӏэрэн	to drop onto	те-...-ы-	тетӏэрын	to drop off
	Among	хэ-...-э-	хэтӏэрэн	to drop into	хэ-...-ы-	хэтӏэрын	to drop out of
	Inside	и-...-э-	итӏэрэн	to drop inside	и-...-ы-	итӏэрын	to drop out of

Usage Examples

Examples

The cislocative prefix къы~ ([qə]) indicates motion towards the deictic center (usually the speaker or "here"). Without this prefix, verbs typically imply motion away from the speaker (andative).

Base Verb (Andative)	Meaning	Cislocative Form (Venitive)	Meaning
макӏо	(s)he goes (away)	къакӏо	(s)he comes (here)
ехьы	(s)he takes (away)	къехьы	(s)he brings (here)
нэсы	(s)he reaches (there)	къэсы	(s)he arrives (here)

When addressing someone directly, къы~ can indicate motion towards the *listener* instead of the speaker.

• Сэчъэ "I run" → Сыкъачъэ "I run towards you".
• Мыжъор къэсдзыщт "I will throw the rock towards you".

In certain constructions involving a 3rd person argument, adding къы~ shifts the perspective, effectively swapping the subject and object roles relative to the speaker. This happens because the prefix redirects the focus "inward" toward the speaker.

• Сыфэд "I am like him" → Къысфэд "He is like me".
• Сыдакӏо "I go with him" → Къыздакӏо "He comes with me".

Interaction Between 1st and 2nd Persons: This inversion rule only applies when a 3rd person is involved. When a 1st person and a 2nd person interact with each other, adding the cislocative prefix does not swap their roles. It merely adds a directional or venitive nuance to the existing relationship.

Base Form	Meaning	With Cislocative (къы~)	Meaning
Сыпфэд	I am like you	Скъыпфэд	I am like you (directional)
Усфэд	You are like me	Укъысфэд	You are like me (directional)
Сыпдэкӏо	I go with you	Скъыпдэкӏо	I come with you
Усдэкӏо	You go with me	Укъысдэкӏо	You come with me

• Mukhadin Kumakhov & Karina Vamling, Circassian Clause Structure: [1].