Circassian verb transitivity
Verbs in Circassian (encompassing both the Adyghe and Kabardian) can be ditransitive, transitive or intransitive. Depending on their valency (the number of arguments they require), they are categorized into the following main types:
- Monovalent Intransitive Verbs
- Bivalent Intransitive Verbs
- Bivalent Transitive Verbs
- Trivalent Ditransitive Verbs
A fundamental rule of Circassian grammar is that a verb can contain at most three arguments: one Absolutive, one Ergative, and one Oblique.
There are also special cases like Labile (Ambitransitive) Verbs, where the direct object of its transitive use corresponds to the subject of its intransitive use, and Causative Verbs, which increase valency by turning an intransitive verb into a transitive one or a bivalent transitive into a trivalent one.
Monovalent Intransitive Verbs
In a sentence with a monovalent intransitive verb, there is no direct object, and the real subject is usually expressed by a noun in the absolutive case (marked as -р).[1]
| Sentence | Gloss | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ady: Чэмахъор щыт Kbd: Жэмахъуэр щыт |
Cowherd-ABS stands | S VERB | "The cowherd is standing (there)." |
| Ady: Пэсакӏор макӏо Kbd: Пэсакӏуэр макӏуэ |
Guard-ABS goes | S VERB | "The security guard is going." |
| Ady: Лӏыр мэчъые Kbd: Лӏыр мэжей |
Man-ABS sleeps | S VERB | "The man is sleeping." |
Bivalent Intransitive Verbs (Intransitive with Indirect Objects)
In the Circassian language, intransitive verbs can have indirect objects. The subject is in the absolutive case (-р), while the indirect objects are expressed by a noun in the oblique case (which is marked as -м).[2]
| Sentence | Gloss | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ady: Кӏалэр пшъашъэм ебэу Kbd: Щӏалэр пщащэм йобэу |
Boy-ABS girl-OBL kisses | S IO VERB | "The boy kisses the girl." |
| Ady: Лӏыр чъыгым чӏэлъ Kbd: Лӏыр жыгым щӏэлъщ |
Man-ABS tree-OBL lies-under | S IO VERB | "The man lays under the tree." |
| Ady: Кӏалэр тхылъым еджэ Kbd: Щӏалэр тхылъым йоджэ |
Boy-ABS book-OBL reads | S IO VERB | "The boy reads the book." |
Bivalent Transitive Verbs
In a sentence with a bivalent transitive verb, the noun in the subject's position is in the ergative case (marked as -м), and the noun in the direct object's position is in the absolutive case (marked as -р).[3]
| Sentence | Gloss | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ady: Кӏалэм письмэр етхы Kbd: Щӏалэм письмор етх |
Boy-ERG letter-ABS writes | A O VERB | "The boy is writing the letter." |
| Ady: Пхъашӏэм уатэр къыштагъ Kbd: Пхъащӏэм уадэр къэщтащ |
Carpenter-ERG hammer-ABS took | A O VERB | "The carpenter took the hammer." |
| Ady: Хьэм тхьакӏумкӏыхьэр къыубытыгъ Kbd: Хьэм тхьакIумкӏыхьыр къиубыдащ |
Dog-ERG rabbit/hare-ABS caught | A O VERB | "The dog has caught the rabbit/hare." |
Trivalent Ditransitive Verbs
Trivalent Ditransitive verbs involve three participants: a subject (Agent), a direct object (Theme), and an indirect object (Recipient/Goal). The subject is in the ergative case (-м), the direct object is in the absolutive case (-р), and the indirect object is in the oblique case (-м).[4]
| Sentence | Gloss | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ady: Кӏалэм мыӏэрысэр пшъашъэм реты Kbd: Щӏалэм мыӏэрысэр пщащэм ирет |
Boy-ERG apple-ABS girl-OBL gives | A O IO VERB | "The boy gives the apple to the girl." |
| Ady: Лӏым мыжъор хым хедзэ Kbd: Лӏым мывэр хым хедзэ |
Man-ERG rock-ABS sea-OBL throws-into | A O IO VERB | "The man throws the rock into the sea." |
| Ady: Бысымым хъугъэ къэбарэр хьакӏэм риӏуагъ Kbd: Бысымым хъуа къэбарыр хьэщӏэм жриӏащ |
Host-ERG happened news-ABS guest-OBL told | A O IO VERB | "The host told the news of what happened to the guest." |
Labile (Ambitransitive) Verbs
There are verbs in Circassian that can be used both as transitive and intransitive depending on context. Both variations are formed from the same root verb (e.g., къутэн "to break"). In these cases, the direct object of the transitive use corresponds to the subject of the intransitive use.[5]
| Context | Sentence | Gloss | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Intransitive | Ady: Апчыр мэкъутэ Kbd: Абджыр мэкъутэ |
Glass-ABS breaks | "The glass is being broken." |
| Transitive | Ady: Кӏалэм апчыр екъутэ Kbd: Щӏалэм абджыр екъутэ |
Boy-ERG glass-ABS breaks | "The boy is breaking the glass." |
Causative Valency Increase
Verbs can increase their valency by attaching the causative affix -гъэ- (meaning "to force, to make"). Because a verb can have a maximum of one Absolutive, one Ergative, and one Oblique argument, the causative operation effectively fills in the "missing" argument.[6]
From Monovalent Intransitive: The base verb lacks an Ergative argument. The causative introduces the causer as the new Ergative subject.
| Context | Sentence | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Base Intransitive | Ady: Кӏалэр мачъэ Kbd: Щӏалэр мажэ |
ABS VERB | "The boy runs." |
| Causative Transitive | Ady: Лӏым кӏалэр егъачъэ Kbd: Лӏым щӏалэр егъажэ |
ERG ABS VERB | "The man makes the boy run." |
From Bivalent Intransitive: The base verb has Absolutive and Oblique, but lacks an Ergative. The causative introduces the causer as the new Ergative subject.
| Context | Sentence | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Base Intransitive | Ady: Кӏалэр пшъашъэм еплъы Kbd: Щӏалэр пщащэм йоплъ |
ABS OBL VERB | "The boy looks at the girl." |
| Causative Transitive | Ady: Лӏым кӏалэр пшъашъэм регъэплъы Kbd: Лӏым щӏалэр пщащэм регъэплъ |
ERG ABS OBL VERB | "The man makes the boy look at the girl." |
From Bivalent Transitive: The base verb has Ergative and Absolutive, but lacks an Oblique. When the causative is applied, the original Ergative subject is demoted to the missing Oblique slot, and a new causer is introduced as the Ergative subject.
| Context | Sentence | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Base Transitive | Ady: Кӏалэм пшъашъэр елъэгъу Kbd: Щӏалэм пщащэр елъагъу |
ERG ABS VERB | "The boy sees the girl." |
| Causative Transitive | Ady: Лӏым пшъашъэр кӏалэм регъэлъэгъу Kbd: Лӏым пщащэр щӏалэм регъэлъагъу |
ERG ABS OBL VERB | "The man makes the boy see the girl." |
Valency and Prepositions (Preverbs)
Adding a positional preposition (often referred to as a preverb, meaning prepositional prefixes attached directly to the verb like хэ- 'within', те- 'on', чӏэ-/щӏэ- 'under') is a valency-increasing operation. By attaching the preverb to the verb stem, the verb now requires a locative target or spatial participant. This new participant fills the oblique case (-м) slot to denote its locative role. Because a Circassian verb can only support one oblique argument slot, a preverb can only be added to a verb that does not already have one.[7]
- From Monovalent Intransitive (S): Taking a preverb turns it into a Preposition-ed Bivalent Intransitive (S, IO). The new locative target takes the Oblique case.
| Context | Sentence | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Base Intransitive | Ady: Сэ сыплъагъ Kbd: Сэ сыплъащ |
ABS VERB | "I looked." |
| Preposition-ed Bivalent Intransitive | Ady: Сэ ащ схэплъагъ Kbd: Сэ абы схэплъащ |
ABS OBL VERB | "I looked into that." |
- From Bivalent Transitive (A, O): Taking a preverb turns it into a Preposition-ed Trivalent Transitive (A, O, IO). The new locative target takes the Oblique case.
| Context | Sentence | Function | Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Base Transitive | Ady: Сэ ар сыдзыгъ Kbd: Сэ ар сдзащ |
ERG ABS VERB | "I threw it." |
| Preposition-ed Trivalent Transitive | Ady: Сэ ар ащ хэсдзагъ Kbd: Сэ ар абы хэсдзащ |
ERG ABS OBL VERB | "I threw it into that." |
Bivalent Intransitive & Trivalent Ditransitive verbs cannot take an additional preverb because their oblique case slot is already occupied. To apply a spatial prefix to a bivalent intransitive concept, you must attach it to its monovalent root instead.
In Circassian, 1st and 2nd person Personal pronouns (ex. Сэ "I", Уэ "You", etc.) do not take overt case endings. Their role as Absolutive, Ergative, or Oblique is instead determined by word order and the verb's cross-reference prefixes.[8]
Conclusion: Full Verb Types and Argument Structures
The following table summarizes every verb configuration mentioned, demonstrating exactly how the three core arguments (ERG, ABS, OBL) are filled across base, causative, and preposition-ed (preverb) forms.[9]
| Verb Version | Case Structure | Example Sentence (Adyghe / Kabardian) | English Translation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Monovalent Intransitive | ABS | Ady: Кӏалэр мачъэ Kbd: Щӏалэр мажэ |
"The boy runs." |
| Causative from Monovalent Intransitive | ERG, ABS | Ady: Лӏым кӏалэр егъачъэ Kbd: Лӏым щӏалэр егъажэ |
"The man makes the boy run." |
| Preposition-ed Bivalent Intransitive (from Monovalent Intransitive) |
ABS, OBL | Ady: Сэ ащ схэплъагъ Kbd: Сэ абы схэплъащ |
"I looked into that." |
| Bivalent Intransitive | ABS, OBL | Ady: Кӏалэр пшъашъэм еплъы Kbd: Щӏалэр пщащэм йоплъ |
"The boy looks at the girl." |
| Causative from Bivalent Intransitive | ERG, ABS, OBL | Ady: Лӏым кӏалэр пшъашъэм регъэплъы Kbd: Лӏым щӏалэр пщащэм регъэплъ |
"The man makes the boy look at the girl." |
| Bivalent Transitive | ERG, ABS | Ady: Кӏалэм пшъашъэр елъэгъу Kbd: Щӏалэм пщащэр елъагъу |
"The boy sees the girl." |
| Causative from Bivalent Transitive | ERG, ABS, OBL | Ady: Лӏым пшъашъэр кӏалэм регъэлъэгъу Kbd: Лӏым пщащэр щӏалэм регъэлъагъу |
"The man makes the boy see the girl." |
| Preposition-ed Trivalent Transitive (from Bivalent Transitive) |
ERG, ABS, OBL | Ady: Сэ ар ащ хэсдзагъ Kbd: Сэ ар абы хэсдзащ |
"I threw it into that." |
| Trivalent Ditransitive | ERG, ABS, OBL | Ady: Кӏалэм мыӏэрысэр пшъашъэм реты Kbd: Щӏалэм мыӏэрысэр пщащэм ирет |
"The boy gives the apple to the girl." |
References
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 87–89.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 95–96.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 94–95.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 100–101.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 88–89.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 98–103.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 102–104.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 84–86.
- ^ Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 87–105.
Sources
- Kumakhov, Mukhadin; Vamling, Karina (2009). Circassian Clause Structure. Caucasus Studies 1. Holmbergs (printer); Cover illustration: Caucasus Mountains by K. Vamling. Malmö: Malmö University, Department of International Migration and Ethnic Relations (IMER) / Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Linguistics. ISBN 978-91-7104-083-1.