Adyghe grammar

Adyghe is a polysynthetic language with an ergative verb-final clause structure and rich verb morphology.

Unlike the majority of languages in the world which follow the Nominative–accusative alignment, Adyghe follows the Ergative–absolutive alignment.

The distinction between syntactic cases is crucial for understanding who is doing the action and to whom. Nouns in Adyghe take the following case roles in a sentence depending on the verb's transitivity:

• Absolutive case: Marked with the suffix -р /-r/. It indicates the subject of an intransitive verb or the direct object of a transitive verb.
• Ergative case: Marked with the suffix -м /-m/. It indicates the subject (agent) of a transitive verb.
• Oblique case: Also marked with the suffix -м /-m/. It marks the target of the action in bivalent intransitive verbs, functions as the indirect object (dative) in ditransitive verbs, and acts as a locative argument in transitive verbs with prepositional prefixes.

The following basic example demonstrates this ergative–absolutive case marking system:

Sentence:	ӏанэр мэкъутэ.			Лӏым ӏанэр екъутэ.
Word:	ӏанэ-р	мэкъутэ		Лӏым	ӏанэр	екъутэ
Gloss:	The table-ABS	breaks		The man-ERG	the table-ABS	breaks
Function:	S	VERBintrans		A	O	VERBtrans
Translation:	"The table breaks."			"The man breaks the table."

Here, "table" has the absolutive case mark -р /-r/ while "man" has the ergative case mark -м /-m/. We also have the verb "break" in intransitive form "мэкъутэ" and transitive form "екъутэ". In the example above, we specifically used SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) order, but Circassian allows any word order.

To understand the mirror-image nature of these alignments, it helps to look at how each system reduces a transitive sentence.

In a Nominative-Accusative language like English, the default focus is on the agent. To drop the object, an intransitive verb is used. To drop the agent, the language must use a passive construction.

• Active Transitive: The boy cleans the house.
• Active Intransitive: The boy cleans. (Object dropped)
• Passive Intransitive: The house is being cleaned. (Agent dropped)

In an Ergative-Absolutive language like Adyghe, the focus shifts depending on whether the action involves an object. See the following table comparing transitive, intransitive, and antipassive structures:

The "Clean" Root

Voice	Circassian Example	Gloss	Translation
Active Transitive	Кӏалэм унэр еукъэбзы.	Boy-ERG house-ABS cleans	"The boy cleans the house."
Active Intransitive	Унэр мэукъэбзы.	House-ABS cleans	"The house becomes clean." (Agent dropped)
Antipassive Intransitive	Кӏалэр мэукъабзэ.	Boy-ABS cleans	"The boy cleans." (Object dropped)

This structural symmetry can also be seen with the verb "to write" (тхын). In this case, the antipassive is heavily used, even though the monovalent intransitive form "мэтхы" is never used in speech:

The "Write" Root (тхын)

Voice	Circassian Example	Gloss	Translation
Active Transitive	Кӏалэм гущыӏэр етхы.	Boy-ERG word-ABS writes	"The boy writes the word."
Active Intransitive (not used)	Гущыӏэр мэтхы.	Word-ABS writes	"The word is written." (Agent dropped)
Antipassive Intransitive	Кӏалэр матхэ.	Boy-ABS writes	"The boy writes." (Object dropped)

Because Adyghe verbs are highly inflected, a verb's transitivity dictates the grammatical cases of its arguments. Verbs can fall into strictly monovalent, bivalent, or trivalent categories, or shift between them.

Monovalent verbs take only a single core argument. Depending on their semantics and morphology, they fall into the following types:

• Active Monovalent Intransitive Verbs
• Antipassive Monovalent Intransitive Verbs

Active monovalent verbs are usually strictly monovalent, meaning they do not have transitive variants. Examples include: лӏэн "to die", тӏысын "to sit", гущыӏэн "to talk", etc. These verbs are always strictly intransitive, and their single argument is in the absolutive case.

Sentence:	Мыжъор мэджыджэ.
Word:	Мыжъо-р	мэджыджэ
Gloss:	The rock-ABS	is rolling
Function:	S	VERBintrans
Translation:	"The rock is rolling."

In these verbs, morphologically, the present tense pattern is characterized by the prefix vowel э and the root ending in ы.

Active Monovalent Intransitive Verbs

3rd Person			1st Person
Present	Past	Translation	Present	Past	Translation
ар мэсты	ар стыгъэ	"(s)he burns"	сэ сэсты	сэ сыстыгъ	"I burn"
ар мэуцу	ар уцугъэ	"(s)he stands still"	сэ сэуцу	сэ сыуцугъ	"I stand still"
ар мэгъы	ар гъыгъэ	"(s)he cries"	сэ сэгъы	сэ сыгъыгъ	"I cry"
ар мэшъу	ар шъугъэ	"(s)he dries"	сэ сэшъу	сэ сышъугъ	"I dry"
ар мэлыджы	ар лыджыгъэ	"(s)he tickles"	сэ сэлыджы	сэ сылыджыгъ	"I tickle"

Unlike active monovalent verbs, antipassive monovalent verbs usually have a bivalent intransitive or transitive variant. In these antipassive verbs, where the default object has been dropped, morphologically, they are marked by a pattern containing a long vowel а and ending in a short э.

Antipassive Monovalent Intransitive Verbs

3rd Person			1st Person
Present	Past	Translation	Present	Past	Translation
ар матхэ	ар тхагъэ	"(s)he writes"	сэ сэтхэ	сэ сытхагъ	"I write"
ар мадэ	ар дагъэ	"(s)he sews"	сэ сэдэ	сэ сыдагъ	"I sew"
ар машхэ	ар шхагъэ	"(s)he eats"	сэ сэшхэ	сэ сышхагъ	"I eat"
ар мажъо	ар жъуагъэ	"(s)he plows"	сэ сэжъо	сэ сыжъуагъ	"I plow"
ар мэлъаӏо	ар лъэӏуагъэ	"(s)he begs"	сэ сэлъаӏо	сэ сылъэӏуагъ	"I beg"
ар мао	ар уагъэ	"(s)he strikes"	сэ сэо	сэ сыуагъ	"I strike"

To demonstrate how these antipassive verbs adapt when the target of the action is reintroduced, observe the following valency shifts:

• Shift to Bivalent Intransitive: When an oblique target is introduced, the absolutive subject remains the actor, but the verb shifts to its bivalent intransitive form.

Sentence:	Ар мао.			Ар ащ ео.
Word:	Ар	мао		Ар	ащ	ео
Gloss:	(s)he-ABS	strikes		(s)he-ABS	him/her/it-OBL	strikes
Function:	S	VERBintrans		S	IO	VERBintrans
Translation:	"(s)he strikes."			"(s)he strikes him/her/it."

• Shift to Bivalent Transitive: When a direct object is introduced, the alignment flips. The actor takes the ergative case, the object takes the absolutive case, and the verb takes its transitive form.

Sentence:	Ар машхэ.			Ащ ар ешхы.
Word:	Ар	машхэ		Ащ	ар	ешхы
Gloss:	(s)he-ABS	eats		(s)he-ERG	it-ABS	eats
Function:	S	VERBintrans		A	O	VERBtrans
Translation:	"(s)he eats."			"(s)he eats it."

Bivalent verbs take exactly two core arguments. They are categorized based on how the action is transferred and which grammatical cases they assign:

• Bivalent Intransitive Verbs
• Bivalent Transitive Verbs

There is a group of Circassian verbs that take two arguments but remain grammatically intransitive. Bivalent Intransitive Verbs have the components Absolutive and Oblique. Examples include: еон "to hit", ебэун "to kiss", езэон "to fight", etc. In this category, the actor takes the absolutive case (-р), while the target of the action takes the oblique case (-м), rather than being treated as a direct object.

Sentence:	Кӏалэр мэлъаӏо.			Кӏалэр тхьэматэм елъэӏу.
Word:	Кӏалэ-р	мэлъаӏо		Кӏалэр	тхьэматэм	елъэӏу
Gloss:	The boy-ABS	begs		The boy-ABS	the boss-OBL	the boy begs the boss
Function:	S	VERBintrans		S	IO	VERBintrans
Translation:	"The boy begs."			"The boy begs the boss."

Standard transitive verbs take two core arguments where the action is directly transferred to an object. Bivalent Transitive Verbs have the components Ergative and Absolutive. In this case, there is a direct object receiving the action. The subject (agent) takes the ergative case (-м), and the direct object takes the absolutive case (-р).

Sentence:	Кӏалэр матхэ.			Кӏалэм тхылъэр етхы.
Word:	Кӏалэ-р	матхэ		Кӏалэм	тхылъэр	етхы
Gloss:	The boy-ABS	writes		The boy-ERG	the book-ABS	writes
Function:	S	VERBintrans		A	DO	VERBtrans
Translation:	"The boy writes."			"The boy writes the book."

Some Circassian monovalent intransitive verbs can be transformed into bivalent transitive verbs. The roles of the original arguments shift depending on the semantic nature of the verb:

• Subject becomes Object: In verbs indicating state or a change of condition, the subject of the intransitive verb becomes the object of the transitive verb. This acts similarly to a causative, where an external agent is causing the state to happen to the object. Other verbs that behave this way are: ухын "to finish", шъыбын "to seal", убэтэн "to break", къутэн "to destroy", etc.
  • ар мэшъыбы → ащ ар ешъыбы ("it is being sealed" → "(s)he seals it")
  • ар мэубатэ → ащ ар еубатэ ("it breaks" → "(s)he breaks it")

Sentence:	Кӏалэр мэтхьалэ.			ӏугъом кӏалэр етхьалэ.
Word:	Кӏалэ-р	мэтхьалэ		ӏугъом	кӏалэр	етхьалэ
Gloss:	The boy-ABS	suffocates		The smoke-ERG	the boy-ABS	suffocates
Function:	S	VERBintrans		A	O	VERBtrans
Translation:	"The boy is suffocating."			"The smoke suffocates the boy."

• Subject becomes Agent (Antipassive): In inherently agentive verbs, the subject of the intransitive verb acts as the agent of the transitive verb. This intransitive form functions as an antipassive construction, where the object is dropped and the agent takes the absolutive case. Other verbs that behave this way are: шхэн "to eat", дэн "to sew", жъон "to plow", гыкӏэн "to do laundry", тхьакӏэн "to wash", etc.

Sentence:	Кӏалэр матхэ.			Кӏалэм гущыӏэр етхы.
Word:	Кӏалэ-р	матхэ		Кӏалэм	гущыӏэр	етхы
Gloss:	The boy-ABS	writes		The boy-ERG	the word-ABS	writes
Function:	S	VERBintrans		A	O	VERBtrans
Translation:	"The boy is writing."			"The boy writes the word."

Trivalent verbs take three core arguments, involving an agent, a direct object, and an indirect recipient or target. This category consists of:

• Trivalent Ditransitive Verbs

These verbs require all three components: the Absolutive, the Ergative, and the Oblique. They convey actions where a subject transfers a direct object to an indirect object/recipient. Examples include: тын "to give/pay", etc.

Sentence:	Кӏалэм гущыӏэр еӏо.				Кӏалэм гущыӏэр пшъашъэм реӏо.
Word:	Кӏалэм	гущыӏэр	еӏо		Кӏалэм	гущыӏэр	пшъашъэм	реӏо
Gloss:	The boy-ERG	the word-ABS	says		The boy-ERG	the word-ABS	the girl-OBL	says
Function:	A	DO	VERBtrans		A	DO	IO	VERBtrans
Translation:	"The boy is saying the word."				"The boy is saying the word to the girl."

A Circassian noun can be in one of two states: singular or plural.

Singular nouns carry a zero morpheme (no prefixes or suffixes), while plural nouns use the suffix -хэ (-xa), which is attached to the stem. For example:

• Singular: унэ "house", тхылъ "book".
• Plural: унэ-хэ "houses", тхылъ-хэ "books".

Circassian verbs also mark plurality, but they use different morphemes compared to nouns. Verbs use the prefix -а- (before the root) or the suffix -х- (after the root) to indicate plural arguments. For example: ар макӏо "he is going" vs. ахэр макӏо-х "they are going"; ащ ыӏуагъ "he said" vs. ахэмэ а-ӏуагъ "they said".

Adyghe nouns differentiate between definite and indefinite forms, similar to the function of articles (the vs. a/an) in English.

• Indefinite: The noun usually has no case suffix (zero marking) or strictly the indefinite suffix. This form is used for generalizations or when the object is unknown to the listener.

  Example: кӏалэ "a boy" (undefined).

• Definite: The noun takes a specific case marker, usually -р (absolutive) or -м (ergative/oblique). This form is used when the referent is specific or known to the context.

  Example: кӏалэр or кӏалэм "the boy".

Adyghe has four noun cases: absolutive, ergative (which also functions as an oblique), instrumental, and adverbial.

Case	Suffix		Example
	Cyrillic	IPA
Absolutive	-р	/-r/	кӏалэр [t͡ʃʼaːɮar] (the boy)
Ergative-Oblique	-м	/-m/	кӏалэм [t͡ʃʼaːɮam] (the boy / to the boy)
Instrumental	-кӏэ	/-t͡ʃʼa/	кӏалэкӏэ [t͡ʃʼaːɮat͡ʃʼa] (using a boy / with a boy)
	-мкӏэ	/-mt͡ʃʼa/	кӏалэмкӏэ [t͡ʃʼaːɮamt͡ʃʼa] (using the boy / with the boy)
Adverbial	-эу	/-aw/	кӏалэу [t͡ʃʼaːɮaw] (as a boy / boyish / boyly)

The absolutive case is marked by the suffix -р /-r/. It is used for definite nouns in singular and plural forms (e.g., кӏалэр [t͡ʃʼaːɮar] 'the boy', кӏалэхэр [t͡ʃʼaːɮaxar] 'the boys', шыр [ʃər] 'the horse').

Syntactically, the absolutive case marks:

1. The Subject of an intransitive verb.
2. The Direct Object of a transitive verb.

• Subject of intransitive verb: In the following example, кӏалэр is the subject of the intransitive verb "went".

• Direct Object of transitive verb: In the following example, джанэр is the direct object being acted upon by the subject (бзылъфыгъэм).

The suffix -м /-m/ is used for both the Ergative and Oblique cases (e.g., кӏалэм [t͡ʃʼaːɮam], кӏалэхэм [t͡ʃʼaːɮaxam], шым [ʃəm]). Its function depends on the transitivity of the verb.

• Ergative role: Marks the Subject (agent) of a transitive verb.

• Oblique role: Marks the Indirect Object or the target of action for both transitive and intransitive verbs.

An example with an intransitive verb еджэ "reads" (bivalent):

An example with a transitive verb реты "gives":

The Oblique case is also used for Adverbial Modifiers of time and place.

• Time: Студентхэм мафэм ӏоф ашӏагъ "The students worked during the day."
• Place: Кӏалэхэр мэзым кӏуагъэх "The boys went to the forest."

The instrumental case expresses instruments (tools/means), direction, or purpose.

• Indefinite nouns take the suffix -кӏэ /-t͡ʃʼa/ (e.g., тхылъ-кӏэ "with a book").
• Definite nouns combine the oblique suffix -м with the instrumental -кӏэ, forming -мкӏэ (e.g., тхылъы-м-кӏэ "with the book").

Instrument (Tool):

Purpose/Referral:

Direction:

The adverbial case is marked by the suffix -эу /-aw/ (e.g., кӏалэу [t͡ʃʼaːɮaw], шэу [ʃaw]). It acts as a predicative complement, often translating to "as X" or indicating a transformation "into X".

Adyghe nouns are typically formed through composition (compounding) or suffixation.

Common compound forms include:

• мэзчэ́т "pheasant" (from мэз "forest" + чэт "chicken")
• псычэ́т "duck" (from псы "water" + чэт "chicken")
• мэкъумэ́щ "agriculture" (from мэкъу "hay" + мэщы́ "millet")
• шхапӏэ "cafeteria" (from шхэн "to eat" + пӏэ "place")

Common derivation suffixes include:

Meaning	Suffix	Example
Manner	-кӏэ	зекӏуакӏэ "behavior", кӏуакӏэ "gait", кӏочӏакӏэ "strength", тхакӏэ "writing style".
Time	-гъу	хьадэгъу "death time", къэщэгъу "age of marriage", лӏыжъыгъу "old age time", къежьэгъу "time of beginning".
Fellow	-гъу	лъэпкъэгъу "kinsman", унэгъу "family", ныбджэгъу "friend".
Place	-щ	хьакӏэщ "sitting-room" (from хьакӏэ "guest"), чэмэ́щ "cowshed" (from чэмы́ "cow"), чэтэщ "hen-coop" (from чэты "chicken").
Location	-пӏэ	еджапӏэ "school" (from еджэ́н "study"), уцупӏэ "station" (from уцун "to stop").
Agent	-кӏо	еджакӏо "student" (from еджэ́н "study"), лэжьакӏо "worker" (from лэжьэн "to work").
Tool (Container)	-лъ	щыгъу́лъ "saltcellar" (from щыгъу "salt"), дэгъа́лъ "vessel for oil" (from дагъэ́ "oil").
Substance/Material	-пхъэ	чылапхъ "seed", гъомылапхъ "foodstuffs".
Negative Quality	-джэ	кӏуадж "bad road" (from кӏон "to go"), теплъаджэ "ugly" (from теплъэ "appearance").

Possession is a key grammatical feature in Adyghe. Nouns are divided into two distinct categories based on the relationship between the possessor and the possessed:

• Inalienable (Organic) possession: Used for things that cannot be separated from the possessor (body parts, family, intrinsic positions).
• Alienable (Proprietary) possession: Used for transferable property, objects, and concepts.

Inalienable possession is marked by a specific set of prefixes attached directly to the noun stem. This category strictly includes:

• Body parts: e.g., head, heart, leg, soul.
• Kinship terms: e.g., mother, brother, daughter.
• Name: ыцӏэ
• Part-whole and Spatial relations: Positional words are treated as "body parts" of an object.
  • ычӏэгъ "its under / underside"
  • ыкӏоцӏ "its inside"
  • ыкӏыб "its back / behind"
  • ыпэ "its nose / front"
  • ынакъо "its half"

Person	Singular Possessor		Plural Possessor
	Prefix	Example	Prefix	Example
1st	с- / сы-	с-шъхьэ "my head" сы-гу "my heart"	т- / ты-	ты-нэхэр "our eyes" т-шъхьэхэр "our heads" т-ӏэжъуамбэхэр "our toes/nails"
2nd	п- / у-	п-лъакъо "your leg" у-нэ "your eye" п-ӏэ "your hand"	шъу-	шъу-лъакъохэр "your legs" шъу-шъхьацыхэр "your hair"
3rd	ы-	ы-шы "his/her brother" ы-пхъу "his/her daughter" ы-къу "his/her son"	а-	а-гу "their hearts" а-лъакъо "their legs"

Alienable possession is used for separable items, such as property, animals, concepts, and material objects. These prefixes differ from the inalienable ones, typically involving the additional vowel -и- (-i-).

Person	Singular Possessor		Plural Possessor
	Prefix	Example	Prefix	Example
1st	си-	си-тхылъ "my book"	ти-	ти-ун "our home"
2nd	уи-	уи-тхылъ "your book"	шъуи-	шъуи-ун "your home"
3rd	и-	и-тхылъ "his/her book"	я-	я-ун "their home"

In Adyghe, pronouns are categorized into the following groups: personal, demonstrative, possessive, interrogative, determinative/reflexive, and indefinite.

Strictly speaking, personal pronouns exist only for the first and second persons.

• 1st Person: сэ "I" (Singular), тэ "we" (Plural).
• 2nd Person: о "you" (Singular), шъо "you" (Plural).

To express the third person ("he", "she", "it", "they"), Adyghe uses demonstrative pronouns (see below).

Unlike nouns, 1st and 2nd person pronouns do not distinguish between the Absolutive and Ergative cases. These two cases merge into a common form.

Case	First-person		Second-person
	Singular (I)	Plural (We)	Singular (You)	Plural (You)
Absolutive / Ergative	сэ [sa]	тэ [ta]	о [wa]	шъо [ʃʷa]
Instrumental	сэркӏэ [sart͡ʃʼa]	тэркӏэ [tart͡ʃʼa]	оркӏэ [wart͡ʃʼa]	шъоркӏэ [ʃʷart͡ʃʼa]
Adverbial	сэрэу [saraw]	тэрэу [taraw]	орэу [waraw]	шъорэу [ʃʷaraw]

Examples of usage:

• Subject: Сэ седжэ "I read / I am studying."
• Subject (Transitive): О уеджэ тхылъым "You are reading the book."
• Subject (Intransitive): Тэ тэкӏо еджапӏэм "We are going to school."
• Subject (Plural): Шъо ӏоф шъошӏэ "You (plural) are working."
• Indirect Object/Beneficiary: Сэркӏэ мы ӏофы́р къины "This job is hard for me."

Demonstrative pronouns are used to point to objects and also function as 3rd person pronouns. They are distinguished by distance:

• Proximal (This): мы — Used for objects close to the speaker.
• Distal (That): мо — Used for objects far from the speaker.
• Neutral (That): а — Used for objects regardless of distance (or invisible/abstract).

Examples:

• Мы унэм нахьи мо унакӏэу къашӏырэр нахь дах "This house (close) is more beautiful than that house (far) which is being built."
• А тхылъэ́у пщэфыгъэм сегъэплъыба "Show me that book you bought."

Unlike personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns do distinguish cases.

Case	Proximal (This)	Distal (That)	Neutral (That/He/She)
Absolutive	мыр	мор	ар
Ergative / Oblique	мыщ	мощ	ащ
Instrumental	мыщкӏэ	мощкӏэ	ащкӏэ
Adverbial	мырэу	морэу	арэу

The plural forms are created using the -хэ- suffix:

• Absolutive: мыхэр (These), ахэр (Those/They).
• Ergative/Oblique: мыхэм, ахэм.

Independent possessive pronouns express ownership ("Mine", "Yours", "Theirs"). These differ from the possessive prefixes (си-, уи-, etc.) attached to nouns.

• сэсый "mine"
• оуий "yours"
• ий "his / hers / its"
• тэтый "ours"
• шъошъуй "yours" (plural)
• яй "theirs"

Usage examples:

• Мы унэр сэсый "This house is mine."
• Мы чъыгхэр тэтыех "These trees are ours."

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions.

• хэт (or хэта) "who?" — Used for humans.
• сыд (or сыда) "what?" — Used for non-humans/things.
• тхьапш "how much / how many?"
• тары "which?"
• сыдигъу "when?"
• тыдэ "where?"
• сыд фэд "what kind of?"

Examples:

• Хэт зыӏуагъэр? "Who said that?"
• Хэт унэм къихьагъэр? "Who entered the house?"
• Сыд плъэгъугъа? — Хьэ слъэгъугъэ. "What did you see? — I saw a dog."
• Сыд къэпхьыгъэр? "What did you bring?"

This group includes reflexive pronouns ("self") and quantifiers ("all", "every").

• ежь "self"
• зэкӏэ "all"
• шъхьадж "every / each"
• ышъхьэкӏэ "personally / himself"
• хэти, хэтрэ́ "everyone", "any (person)"
• сыди, сыдрэ́ "everything", "any (thing)"

Examples:

• Хэти зышъхьамысыжьэу ӏоф ышӏэн фае "Everyone must work without pitying himself."
• Сыдрэ ӏофри дэгъу, угу къыбдеӏэу бгъэцакӏэмэ "Any job is good if done with a full heart."

The primary indefinite pronoun in Adyghe is зыгорэ, which corresponds to "someone", "something", "some", or "one". It declines like a noun.

Case	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	зыгорэ [zəɡʷara]	зыгорэхэр [zəɡʷaraxar]
Ergative / Oblique	зыгорэм [zəɡʷaram]	зыгорэхэмэ [zəɡʷaraxama]
Instrumental	зыгорэ(м)кӏэ [zəɡʷara(m)t͡ʃʼa]	зыгорэхэ(м)кӏэ [zəɡʷaraxa(m)t͡ʃʼa]
Adverbial	зыгорэу [zəɡʷaraw]	зыгорэхэу [zəɡʷaraxaw]

Usage examples:

• Зыгорэ пчъэм къытеуагъ "Someone knocked on the door."
• А тхылъ гъэшӏэгъоным зыгорэ къытегущыӏэгъагъ "Someone spoke about this interesting book."

From a morphological perspective, adjectives in the Circassian language share many characteristics with nouns. A key feature of Circassian grammar is phrase-final affixation: when an adjective modifies a noun, the noun itself remains in its bare stem form. The grammatical markers for number (plurality) and case (role in the sentence) attach to the end of the entire noun phrase—which usually means they attach to the adjective.

Adjectives are categorized into two main types:

• Qualitative adjectives: Describe qualities (e.g., "good", "white", "tall"). These usually follow the noun.
• Relative (Material) adjectives: Describe material or relation (e.g., "wood", "iron"). These usually precede the noun and do not change form.

Unlike in languages like Spanish or Russian where both the noun and adjective agree (change form), in Adyghe, only the last word in the phrase takes the suffix.

Example 1: Qualitative Adjective (Follows Noun) Here, the noun is пшъэшъэ (girl) and the adjective is дахэ (beautiful).

Number	Phrase	Breakdown	Gloss	Translation
Singular	Пшъэшъэ дахэр	пшъэшъэ дахэ-р	girl beautiful-ABS	"The beautiful girl"
Plural	Пшъэшъэ дахэхэр	пшъэшъэ дахэ-хэ-р	girl beautiful-PL-ABS	"The beautiful girls"

Example 2: Suffixal Adjective (Augmentative) Some adjectives function as suffixes themselves, like ~шхо (large/big). The case and number markers still attach to the very end.

Number	Phrase	Breakdown	Gloss	Translation
Singular	Унэшхо	унэ-шхо	house-large	"A large house"
Plural	Унэшхохэр	унэ-шхо-хэ-р	house-large-PL-ABS	"The large houses"

When an adjective is used substantively (as a noun, e.g., "the white one"), it takes the standard noun case markers directly.

Example: Фыжьы ("White")

Case	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	фыжьыр	фыжьыхэр
Oblique / Ergative	фыжьым	фыжьыхэм
Instrumental	фыжьы(м)кӏэ	фыжьыхэ(м)кӏэ
Adverbial	фыжьэу	фыжьыхэу

Type	Phrase	Breakdown	Gloss	Translation
Qualitative (Follows Noun)	Кӏэлэ дэгъур	кӏэлэ дэгъу-р	boy good-ABS	"The good boy"
	Унэ лъагэм	унэ лъагэ-м	house high-ERG	"The high house (Erg/Obl)"
Relative (Precedes Noun)	Гъучӏ пӏэкӏорыр	гъучӏ пӏэкӏор-ыр	iron bed-ABS	"The iron bed"
	Пхъэ уатэмкӏэ	пхъэ уатэ-мкӏэ	wood hammer-INS	"Using the wooden hammer"

Usage in Sentences

Sentence	Gloss	Function	Translation
Сэ непэ пшъэшъэ дахэ слъэгъугъэ.	I today girl beautiful saw	A O VERB	"I saw a beautiful girl today."
Тэ гъогу занкӏэм тырыкӏуагъ.	We road straight-OBL walked-on	S IO VERB	"We were walking on the straight road."
Кӏэлэ кӏуачӏэр макӏо.	Boy strong-ABS goes	S VERB	"The strong boy is going."

Adjectives have comparative and superlative forms used to express degrees of quality.

Comparative Degree Formed using the auxiliary word нахь (more).

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Ар ощ нахь лъагэ.	He you-than more high	"He is higher than you."
Нахь ины хъугъэ.	More big became	"He became bigger."
Нахь лӀэблан охъун фай.	More brave become must	"You must be braver."

Superlative Degree Formed using the auxiliary word анахь (most/more than all).

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Ар пшъашъэмэ анахь дахэ.	She girls-among most beautiful	"She is the most beautiful among the girls."
Ар зэкӏэмэ анахь лъагэ.	It all-among most high	"It is the highest."
Ар заужмэ анахь лъэшы.	He everyone-among most strong	"He is the strongest."

Various suffixes can be added to nouns and adjectives to modify their meaning (diminutives, augmentatives, intensifiers).

Suffixes for Nouns

Suffix	Meaning	Example
~кӏэ (~t͡ʃʼa)	new	унакӏэ (new house)
~жъы (~ʐə)	old	унэжъы (old house)
~шхо (~ʃxʷa)	large/big	унэшхо (large house)
~цӏыкӏу (~t͡sʼəkʷʼ)	small	унэцӏыкӏу (small house)
~жъый (~ʐəj)	small/tiny	унэжъый (tiny house)

Suffixes for Adjectives

Suffix	Meaning	Example
~ӏо (~ʔʷa)	slightly	дыджыӏо (slightly bitter)
~щэ (~ɕa)	too much/excessively	дыджыщэ (too bitter)
~дэд (~dad)	very	дэгъудэд (very good)
~бз (~bz)	absolutely/completely	дэгъуабз (absolutely good)
~шъыпкъ (~ʂəpq)	truly/really	дэгъушъыпкъ (really good)
~ашъу (~aːʃʷ)	kind of/ish	дэгъуашъу (kind of good/good-ish)
~кӏай (~t͡ʃʼaːj)	quite/pretty	дэгъукӏай (quite good)
~нчъэ (~nt͡ʂa)	lacking/less	акъылынчъэ (mindless)

Examples

Sentence	Breakdown	Translation
Мы джанэр оркӏэ иныӏо.	big-slightly	"This shirt is slightly big for you."
Мы джанэр иныщэ.	big-too.much	"This shirt is too large."
Мы сурэтыр дэхэдэд.	beautiful-very	"This painting is very beautiful."

To indicate that a quality is perceived by someone (an opinion or feeling), the prefix шӏо~ (ʃʷʼa~) is added to the adjective. This transforms the adjective into a verbal construction meaning "X is [ADJ] to Y".

• дахэ "pretty" → шӏодах "it is pretty to him/her"
• ӏэшӏу "tasty" → шӏоӏэшӀу "it is tasty to him/her"

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Кӏалэхэмэ ашӏодахэп сиджанэ.	Boys.ERG 3PL-OPINION-pretty-NEG my-shirt	"My shirt was not beautiful to the boys."
Мы мыӏэрысэм иуасэ пшӏолъапӏа?	... its-cost 2SG-OPINION-expensive-Q	"Is this apple expensive to you?"

The suffix ~гъэ (~ʁa) is appended to adjectives to turn them into abstract nouns representing the measure or quality itself (e.g., "length" from "long").

• кӏыхьэ (long) → кӏыхьагъэ (length)
• псынкӏэ (fast) → псынкӏагъэ (speed)
• фабэ (hot) → фэбагъэ (heat)
• кӏуачӏэ (strong) → кӏочӏагъэ (strength)
• дахэ (beautiful) → дэхагъэ (beauty)

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Пхъэм иӏужъугъэ 65 сантиметр.	Wood-OBL its-width 65 cm	"The wood's width is 65 centimeters."
Кӏалэм кӏочӏагъэ хэлъ.	Boy-OBL strength lies-in	"The boy has strength in him."

The suffix ~гъакӏэ (~ʁaːt͡ʃʼa) forms nouns meaning "the state/essence of being X", which is distinct from the measurable scale marked by ~гъэ.

• кӏыхьэ (long) → кӏыхьэгъакӏэ (lengthiness/state of being long)
• дахэ (pretty) → дэхэгъакӏэ (prettiness/state of beauty)

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Лӏыжъым ишӏугъакӏэ пае...	Old-man-OBL his-goodness-state due-to...	"Due to the old man's (inherent) goodness..."
Сэ мыӏэрысэм иӏэшӏугъакӏэ сыкъегъатхъэ.	... apple-OBL its-tastiness-state ...	"I enjoy the apple's tastiness."

In the Adyghe language, adverbs are categorized into four main groups: adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of quality (manner), and adverbs of amount (quantity).

These adverbs indicate location or direction.

Adverb	Meaning	Nuance
мыдэ	"here"	Near the speaker.
модэ	"there"	Visible to the speaker.
адэ	"there"	Invisible or far from the speaker.

Examples

Sentence	Gloss	Function	Translation
Модэкӏэ тучаныр ӏут.	there-INS shop-ABS stands	S VERB	"The shop is standing over there."
Адэ кӏалэр кӏуагъэ.	there boy-ABS went	S VERB	"The boy went there."

These adverbs indicate when an action takes place.

Category	Adverb	Meaning
Days	непэ	"today"
	тыгъуасэ	"yesterday"
	тыгъуасэнахьыпэ	"the day before yesterday"
	неущы	"tomorrow"
	неущмыкӏэ	"the day after tomorrow"
	непенэу	"all day long"
Years	гъэрекӏо	"last year"
	мыгъэ	"this year"
	къакӏорэгъэ	"next year"
Present / Now	джы	"now"
	джырэкӏэ	"for now"
	джыкӏэ	"so far"
	джыдэдэм	"right now"
	джынэс	"until now"
	джыри	"still" / "again"
Times of Day	пчэдыжьым	"in the morning"
	щэджагъом	"at noon"
	щэджэгъоужым	"in the afternoon"
	пчыхьэм	"in the evening"
	чэщым	"in the night"
Relative Time	зэманым	"in the past"
	тӏэкӏушӏэмэ	"soon" (lit: in a little while)
	бэшӏэмэ	"later" (lit: in a long while)
	тӏэкӏушӏагъэу	"recently"
	бэшӏагъэу	"long time ago"
Sequence / Frequency	пэтырэу	"while"
	етӏанэ (етӏуанэ)	"afterwards"
	пасэу	"early"
	кӏасэу	"lately / late"
	ренэу	"always"

Examples

Sentence	Gloss	Function	Translation
Тӏэкӏушӏэмэ тышхэнэу тыкӏощт.	soon we-eat-PURP we-go-FUT	S VERB	"Soon we will go to eat."
Непэ пасэу еджапӏэм тынэсышъугъ.	today early school-OBL we-reach-POT-PST	S IO VERB	"Today we managed to reach school early."

These adverbs indicate the degree or quantity of the action or quality.

Adverb	Meaning
макӏэ	"few"
тӏэкӏу	"a bit"
тӏэкӏурэ	"few times / for a short period"
бэ	"a lot"
бэрэ	"a lot of times / for a long period"
ӏаджэ	"many"
хъои	"plenty"
апӏэ	"load of"
заулэ	"several"
сыдэу	"so / how (intensifier)"

Examples

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Шхыныр сыдэу фабэ.	food-ABS so hot	"The food is so hot."
Кӏалэм ахъщэ бэ иӏ.	boy-OBL money much has	"The boy has a lot of money."
Чэщым лӏыр тӏэкӏурэ макӏо.	night-OBL man-ABS little-time goes	"In the night, the man goes for a short while."

Adverbs of manner describe how an action is performed. They are productively formed from qualitative adjectives using the adverbial case suffix ~эу (/~aw/).

Adjective	Meaning	Adverb (Suffix -эу)	Meaning
къабзэ	clean	къабзэу	cleanly
чыжьэ	far	чыжьэу	far
псынкӏэ	fast/quick	псынкӏэу	quickly
дахэ	beautiful	дахэу	beautifully
благъэ	near	благъэу	nearly/close
лъэш	strong	лъэшэу	strongly/powerfully
шъабэ	soft	шъабэу	softly
пытэ	firm	пытэу	firmly

Examples

Sentence	Gloss	Function	Translation
Кӏалэр чыжьэу чъагъэ.	boy-ABS far-ADV ran	S VERB	"The boy ran far."
Кӏалэм шхыныр дэгъоу ышӏэгъ.	boy-ERG food-ABS good-ADV made	A O VERB	"The boy made the food excellently."
Пшъашъэр дахэу матхэ.	girl-ABS beautiful-ADV writes	S VERB	"The girl writes beautifully."

Adverbs can be derived from other parts of speech through several methods:

1. Suffixing (Adverbial Case): Adding ~эу to adjectives.
   • дахэ (beautiful) → дахэу (beautifully)
   • шъабэ (soft) → шъабэу (softly)
   • пытэ (firm) → пытэу (firmly)
2. Concatenating (Compounding): Combining two words.
   • неущ (tomorrow) + пчэдыжь (morning) → неущпчэдыжьы (tomorrow morning)
   • щэджагъу (noon) + уж (after) → щэджэгъоужым (afternoon)
3. Conversion (Fossilized Cases): Nouns fixed in a specific case functioning as adverbs.
   • пчыхьэм (evening-ERG/OBL) → "in the evening"
   • лӏыгъэкӏэ (courage-INS) → "forcibly/bravely"

Usage Examples

Sentence	Translation
Сэ дэгъоу сэ́джэ.	"I study well."
Лэжьакӏохэр пчэдыжьым жьэ́у къэтэджых.	"Workers get up early in the morning."

The word нахь (/naːħ/) functions as an adversative adverb meaning "rather" or "actually." It is used to correct a statement or introduce a contrast to what the listener might believe.

• кӏуагъэ (he went) → кӏуагъэ нахь (rather, he went)
• къины (hard) → къины нахь (rather, it is hard)
• кӏалэ (boy) → кӏалэ нахь (rather, it is a boy)

Examples

Sentence	Gloss	Translation
Кӏалэр кӏуагъэп, чъагъэ нахь.	boy-ABS went-NEG, ran rather	"The boy didn't walk, rather he ran."
Фылымым теплъыгъэ нахь.	film-OBL we-watched rather	"We actually watched the film."

In English, the word "and" is used to connect various parts of speech. In Adyghe, there are different ways (suffixes) to connect words depending on their part of speech and definiteness.

Category	Suffix	Example
Indefinite nouns	-рэ /ra/	Кӏалэ-рэ пшъашъэ-рэ къэкӏуагъэх. "A boy and a girl came."
Definite nouns	-мрэ /mra/	Кӏалэ-мрэ пшъашъэ-мрэ кӏуагъэх. "The boy and the girl came."
Pronouns	-рэ /ra/	Сэ-рэ о-рэ тыкӏуагъ. "You and I went."
Indefinite adjectives	-рэ /ra/	Кӏэлэ кӏыхьэ-рэ пшъашъэ дахэ-рэ къэкӏуагъэх. "A tall boy and a pretty girl came."
Definite adjectives	-мрэ /mra/	Кӏэлэ кӏыхьэ-мрэ пшъашъэ дахэ-мрэ къэкӏуагъэх. "The tall boy and the pretty girl came."
Numbers	-рэ /ra/	Кӏэлэ тӏу-рэ пшъашъэ щы-рэ къэкӏуагъэх. "Two boys and three girls came."
Universal nouns	-и /i/	Кӏал-и пшъашъ-и къэкӏуагъэх. "Boys and girls came."
Adverbs	-мкӏи /mt͡ʃʼi/	Мафэ-мкӏи чэщы-мкӏи къэкӏуагъэх. "They came in the day and in the night."

The independent conjunction ыкӏи /ət͡ʃəj/ ("and") can also be used to connect different parts of speech.

• Verbs: Кӏалэр еджэ ыкӏи матхэ. ("The boy reads and writes.")
• Adjectives: Кӏалэр дахэ ыкӏи кӏыхьэ. ("The boy is handsome and tall.")

Conjunctions in the Circassian language play the same role like in English, they are used to connect together, in different ways, words or parts of a difficult sentence. According to structure of Circassian conjunctions they can be separated into two groups: simple and complex.

Among simple Circassian conjunctions are:

• ыкӏи – "and".
• е – "or".
• ау – "but".

• ау щытми – "however".
• ары шъхьай – "but".
• ащ шъхьакӏэ – "however".
• ары пакӏопышъ – "not only", "but".
• арти – "so".
• армэ (аущтэумэ) – "if so".
• арми (аущтэуми) – "even if so".
• армырмэ – "if not, else, otherwise".
• армырми – "even if not, either way".
• нахь мышӏэми – "despite".
• зэ-зэ – "here-and-there".
• е-е – "either-or".
• сыда пӏомэ – "because".
• ащ къыхэкӏыкӏэ – "due to".
• сыдигъокӏи – "in any case".
• сыдми – "either way".

Particles in the Circassian language vary in both meaning and structure. Semantically, they are categorized into groups such as affirmative, negative, interrogative, intensive, indicatory, and stimulating.

Category	Particle	Meaning
Affirmative	ары	"yes"
	хъун, хъущт	"fine", "OK"
	адэ	"of course" (expresses confidence)
Negative	хьау	"no"
Interrogative	шӏуа	"perhaps", "I wonder"
Intensive	адэ	"well"
	кӏо	"well", "so"
Indicatory	мары	"this is it"
	моры	"that is it"
Stimulating	еу	"come on"

Affirmative

• — Непэ тадэжь къакӏоба. — Хъун. ("— Come to us today. — OK.")
• — Къэсӏуагъэр къыбгурыӏуагъа? — Ары. ("— Have you understood what I have said? — Yes.")
• Адэ, непэ тыдэкӏыни тыкъэшхэщт. ("Certainly, we will go out today and eat.")

Negative

• Хьау, хьау, зыми сэ сыфаеп. ("No, no, I don't want a thing.")

Interrogative

• Сыдигъо шӏуа автобусыр къызыкӏощтыр? ("When perhaps will the bus come?")

Intensive

• Адэ, Пщымаф, гущыӏэу птыгъэр пгъэцэкӏэжьын фай. ("Well, Pshimaf, you must keep your word.")
• Кӏо, кӏалэр еджэн фаи къытдэкӏышъугъэп. ("Well, because the boy needs to study he couldn't come out with us.")

Indicatory

• Мары машинэу зигугъу къыпфэсшӏыгъагъэр. ("This is the car which I have told you about.")

Stimulating

• Еу, псынкӏэу зегъахь! ("Come on, get out of here quickly!")

Particle	Function / Meaning	Example
ашъыу	Self-correction ("er", "I mean")	Уатэр къэсфэхь, Ашъыу, отычэр къэсфэхь. ("Bring me the hammer, er, I mean, bring me the axe.")
ашъыу	Annoyance ("argh", "ugh")	Ашъыу!, зэ щыгъэт. ("Ugh!, shut up for a moment.")
хъугъэ	Giving up ("that's enough")	Хъугъэ!, некӏо тыкӏожьыщт. ("That's enough!, let's return.")
еоой	Lament ("alas")	Еоой, идж сыд цӏыфым ышӏэжьыщтэр? ("Alas, what will the person do now?")

Adyghe has a four-way demonstrative system based on distance and visibility, plus an interrogative form.

Stem	IPA	Meaning	Nuance / Usage	Examples
мы	/mə/	this	Refers to a referent close to both the speaker and the listener.	мы ӏанэ — this table мы мэгъэ — this year
мо	/maw/	that	Refers to a referent that is visible and at a known distance.	мо пшъашъэ — that girl мо кӀалэр — that boy
а	/aː/	that / yon	Refers to a referent far away and invisible to both parties.	а ӏанэ — yon table а кӏалэм еӏо — yon boy says
джэ	/d͡ʒa/	that (emphatic)	Refers to an invisible referent already established in the conversation.	джэ пшъашъэ — that girl (mentioned before) джэ кӏалэр — that boy
тэ	/ta/	which	Interrogative form used for questioning.	тэ ӏанэ? — which table? тэ пшъашъэ? — which girl?

Demonstrative stems combine with various suffixes to form adverbs and pronouns related to location, manner, and time.

Category	Root: мы (This)	Root: мо (That, vis.)	Root: а (That, invis.)	Root: джэ (That, ref.)	Root: тэ (Which/Inter.)
Location	мыдэ (here)	модэ (there)	адэ (yonder)	—	тэдэ (where?)
Area	мыу (here)	моу (there)	ау (yonder)	джэу (there)	тэу (where?)
Similarity	мыщфэд (like this)	мощфэд (like that)	ащфэд (like that)	—	тэщфэд (like what?)
Action / Manner	мыущтэу (like this)	моущтэу (like that)	аущтэу (like that)	джэущтэу (like that)	тэущтэу (how?)
Time	мыщыгъум (now)	—	ащыгъум (then)	—	тэщыгъум (at what time?)
Indicatory	мары (this one)	моры (that one)	ары (yon one)	джэры (that one)	тэры (which one?)

In the Circassian language, as well as in other Ibero-Caucasian languages, role of prepositions belongs to postpositions. It is difficult to define the exact count of postpositions in the Circassian language, because even such major parts of speech as nouns (from the point of view of their functionality) sometimes can be included into the group, together with some verb prefixes. For example, in the sentence Тхылъыр столым телъ "The book is lying on the table" the noun has no preposition, but the meaning remains clear because in the verb те-лъ "is lying" the prefix те- expresses something's being on a surface, so this form of the verb literally means "on the surface is lying".

Nouns and adverbs sometimes play role of postpositions. For example, nous that describe different parts of human body (head, nose, side and so on) sometimes function as postpositions. For example: Шъузыр лӏым ыпэ итэу кӏощтыгъэ "The wife was going in front of the husband" (the preposition "in front of" in the Circassian sentence is expressed by the phrase ыпэ итэу "being in front of his nose").

Nouns and pronouns combine with a postposition in the ergative grammatical case only. For example, the postposition дэжь "near, beside" requires a word in the ergative case:

• чъыгы-м дэжь "near the tree";
• ныбджэгъу-м пае "for the friend".

Postpositions can attach possessive prefixes to themselves. For example, in singular:

• сэ с-а-дэжь "near me",
• о у-а-дэжь "near you",
• ащ ы-дэжь "near him";

in plural:

• тэ т-а-дэжь "near us",
• шъо шъу-а-дэжь "near you",
• ахэмэ а-дэжь "near them".

The following words are used as postpositions in the Circassian language:

• дэжь "near".
• пае "for".
• пашъхьэ "in front of, before".
• чӏэгъ "under".
• шъхьагъ "above".
• фэдэу "like, similar".
• азыфагу "between".
• гузэгу "middle".
• бгъу "side".
• гупэ "face".
• кӏыб "back".
• къогъу "corner".
• кӏыӏу "surface".
• кӏоцӏы "inside".
• пэ "nose".
• пшъэ "neck".
• ужы "trace".
• нэуж "track".
• чӏыпӏэ "place".

The suffix ~a /aː/ initials the interrogative particle that indicates a yes-or-no question. For example:

• макӏо "(s)he is going" → макӏуа? "is (s)he going?"
• кӏалэ "boy" → кӏала? "is it a boy?"
• дахэ "beautiful" → даха? "is (s)he beautiful?"

Кӏала ӏаным тесыр? – Is it a boy that sits on the table?

Кӏалэр ӏаным теса? – Is the boy sits on the table?

Кӏалэр ӏана зытесыр? – Is it a table the boy is sits on?

If question is posited to word having the negative suffix ~п (~p), it is converted to suffix ~ба (~baː). The suffix ~ба /baː/ initials the negative interrogative particle. For example:

• макӏо "(s)he is going" → макӏо-ба? "isn't (s)he is going?"
• кӏалэ "boy" → кӏалэ-ба? "isn't it is a boy?"
• дахэ "beautiful" → дахэ-ба? "isn't (s)he is beautiful?"

Кӏалэба ӏаным тесыр? – Isn't it a boy that sits on the table?

Кӏалэр ӏаным тесыба? – Isn't the boy sits on the table?

Кӏалэр ӏанэба зытесыр? – Isn't it a table the boy is sits on?

If question is posited by auxiliary interrogative words:

• хэт (хэта) "who".
• сыд (шъыд) "what/which".
• сыда (шъыда) "why".
• тыдэ "where".
• тхьэпш "how much".
• сыд фэдиз "how much".
• тэущтэу (сыдэущтэу) "how".
• тары "which".
• сыдигъу (шъыдгъо) "when".
• сыдкӏэ (шъыдкӏэ) "with what".
• сыд фэд? "what kind of?".

Order of words in a Circassian sentence is, generally, free, but the situation where verb goes at the end is the most typical.

Трактористыр пасэу къэтэджыгъ "The tractor-driver got up early".

Structure of a full sentence is, usually, defined by its form of verb. In the Circassian language there are the following types of sentences:

1. Nominative sentence, where subject is in the absolutive grammatical case, verb is intransitive, and there is no direct object:

   Гъатхэ́р къэсыгъ, чъыгхэр къызэӏуихыхэу ригъэжъагъ "Spring has come, the trees have started to bloom";

2. Ergative sentence, where subject is in ergative case, direct object is in absolutive case, and the verb is transitive:

   Агрономым губгъохэ́р къыплъахьыгъэх "The agronomist has reviewed the fields";

3. Sentence, where subject is in zero form. In this type of sentences both transitive and intransitive verbs can be used:

   Нанэ тхъу къыситыгъ "Mother gave me some butter";

   Кӏэлэ тэрэз ащ фэдэу псэурэ́п "A good guy does not behave like that".

This type of Circassian sentences is rarer than the first two. In the Circassian language there are compound sentences that can consist both of independent parts only, and of the main part in combination with dependent subparts.

Compound sentences with independent parts:

Нэф къэшъыгъ, ау цӏыфхэр джыри урамхэм къатехьагъэхэ́п "The morning has already come, but the people have not appeared on the streets yet";

Зэкӏэ́ къалэ́м къикӏыжьыгъэх, ау ежь Ибрахьимэ ӏофхэр иӏэу къэуцугъ "Everybody has returned from the city, but Ibrahim has stayed because of his affairs."

Compound sentences with dependent parts are structurally different. The most typical Circassian compound sentence with a dependent part is the sentence where its dependent part expresses some sort of circumstances explaining the main part:

Мэзэ́ псау́м ащ ӏоф ышӏагъэ́п, сыда пӏомэ дэсыгъэпы́шъ ары́ "He has not worked for the whole month, because he has been away".

• Numbers from zero to ten are specific words

0 зиӀ [ziʔ]

1 зы [zə]^ⓘ

2 тӀу [tʷʼə]^ⓘ

3 щы [ɕə]^ⓘ

4 плӀы [pɬʼə]^ⓘ

5 тфы [tfə]^ⓘ

6 хы [xə]^ⓘ

7 блы [blə]^ⓘ or [bɮə]^ⓘ

8 и [jə]^ⓘ

9 бгъу [bʁʷə]^ⓘ

10 пшӀы [pʃʼə]^ⓘ

• Numbers from eleven to nineteen are built with the word for ten, followed by кӀу ([kʷʼə]) and the unit digit:

11 пшӀыкӀуз [pʃʼəkʷʼəz]^ⓘ

12 пшӀыкӀутӀу [pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼ]^ⓘ

13 пшӀыкӀущ [pʃʼəkʷʼəɕ]^ⓘ

14 пшӀыкӀуплӀ [pʃʼəkʷʼəpɬʼ]^ⓘ

15 пшӀыкӀутф [pʃʼəkʷʼətf]^ⓘ

16 пшӀыкӀух [pʃʼəkʷʼəx]^ⓘ

17 пшӀыкӀубл [pʃʼəkʷʼəbl]^ⓘ

18 пшӀыкӀуй [pʃʼəkʷʼəj]^ⓘ

19 пшӀыкӀубгъу [pʃʼəkʷʼəbʁʷ]^ⓘ

• The tens follow a vigesimal system from forty up, with the exception of fifty:

20 тӀокӀы [tʷʼat͡ʃə] (20)

21 тӀокӀырэ зырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃəra zəra] (20 and 1)

22 тӀокӀырэ тӀурэ [tʷʼat͡ʃəra tʷʼəra] (20 and 2)

23 тӀокӀырэ щырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃəra ɕəra] (20 and 3)

...

30 щэкӀы [ɕat͡ʃə] (30)

31 щэкӀырэ зырэ [ɕat͡ʃə zəra] (30 and 1)

32 щэкӀырэ тӀурэ [ɕat͡ʃə tʷʼəra] (30 and 2)

...

40 тӀокӀитӀу [tʷʼat͡ʃitʷʼ] (20 × 2)

41 тӀокӀитӀурэ зырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃitʷʼəra zəra] (20 × 2 and 1)

42 тӀокӀитӀурэ тӀурэ [tʷʼat͡ʃitʷʼəra tʷʼəra] (20 × 2 and 2)

...

50 шъэныкъо [ʂanəqʷa] (half-hundred)

51 шъэныкъорэ зырэ [ʂanəqʷara zəra] (half-hundred and 1)

52 шъэныкъорэ тӀурэ [ʂanəqʷara tʷʼəra] (half-hundred and 2)

...

60 тӀокӀищ [tʷʼat͡ʃiɕ] (20 × 3)

61 тӀокӀищырэ зырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃiɕəra zəra] (20 × 3 and 1)

62 тӀокӀищырэ тӀурэ [tʷʼat͡ʃiɕəra tʷʼəra] (20 × 3 and 2)

...

70 тӀокӀищырэ пшӀырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃiɕra pʃʼəra] (20 × 3 and 10)

71 тӀокӀищырэ пшӀыкӀузырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃiɕra pʃʼəkʷʼəzəra] (20 × 3 and 11)

72 тӀокӀищырэ пшӀыкӀутӀурэ [tʷʼat͡ʃiɕra pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼəra] (20 × 3 and 12)

...

80 тӀокӀиплӀ [tʷʼat͡ʃipɬʼ] (20 × 4)

81 тӀокӀиплӀырэ зырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃipɬʼəra zəra] (20 × 4 and 1)

82 тӀокӀиплӀырэ тӀурэ [tʷʼat͡ʃipɬʼəra tʷʼəra] (20 × 4 and 2)

...

90 тӀокӀиплӀырэ пшӀырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃipɬʼəra pʃʼəra] (20 × 4 and 10)

91 тӀокӀиплӀырэ пшӀыкӀузырэ [tʷʼat͡ʃipɬʼəra pʃʼəkʷʼəzəra] (20 × 4 and 11)

91 тӀокӀиплӀырэ пшӀыкӀутӀурэ [tʷʼat͡ʃipɬʼəra pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼəra] (20 × 4 and 12)

• One hundred is шъэ (ʂa). The hundreds are formed by the hundred word root (шъ (ʂ)) followed by -и- (-i-) and the multiplier digit root.

100 шъэ (ʂa)

101 шъэрэ зырэ (ʂara zəra) (100 and 1)

110 шъэрэ пшӏырэ (ʂara pʃʼəra) (100 and 10)

200 шъитӀу (ʂitʷʼ) (100 × 2)

201 шъитӀурэ зырэ (ʂitʷʼəra zəra) (200 × 2 and 1)

300 шъищ (ʂiɕ) (100 × 3)

400 шъиплӀ (ʂipɬʼ) (100 × 4)

500 шъитф (ʂitf) (100 × 5)

600 шъих (ʂix) (100 × 6)

700 шъибл (ʂibl) (100 × 7)

800 шъий (ʂij) (100 × 8)

900 шъибгъу (ʂibʁʷ) (100 × 9)

• One thousand is мин (min). The thousands are formed by the thousand word root (мин (məjn)) followed by -и- (-i-) and the multiplier digit root.

1000 мин (min)

1001 минрэ зырэ (minra zəra) (1000 and 1)

1010 минрэ пшӏырэ (minra pʃʼəra) (1000 and 10)

1100 минрэ шъэрэ (minra ʂara) (1000 and 100)

2000 минитӀу (minitʷʼ) (1000 × 2)

3000 минищ (miniɕ) (1000 × 3)

4000 миниплӀ (minipɬʼ) (1000 × 4)

5000 минитф (minitf) (1000 × 5)

6000 миних (minix) (1000 × 6)

7000 минибл (minibl) (1000 × 7)

8000 миний (minij) (1000 × 8)

9000 минибгъу (minibʁʷ) (1000 × 9)

10000 минипшӏ (minipʃʼ) (1000 × 10)

11000 минипшӀыкӀуз (minipʃʼəkʷʼəz) (1000 × 11)

12000 минипшӀыкӀутӀу (minipʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼ) (1000 × 12)

20000 минитӀокӀы (minitʷʼat͡ʃə) (1000 × 20)

100000 минишъэ (miniʂa) (1000 × 100)

200000 минишъитӀу (miniʂitʷʼ) (1000 × 200)

When composed, the hundred word takes the -рэ (-ra) suffix, as well as the ten and the unit if any (e.g.:

шъэрэ зырэ (ʂara zəra) [101],
шъэрэ тӀурэ (ʂara tʷʼəra) [102],
шъэрэ пшӀыкӀузырэ (pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼəra) [111],
шъитӀурэ щэкӀырэ плӀырэ (ʂitʷʼəra ɕat͡ʃəra pɬʼəra) [234]).

• One thousand is мин (min). The other thousands are formed by concatenating the thousand word with -и- (-i-) and the multiplier digit root:

минитӀу (minitʷʼə) [2,000],
минищ (miniɕ) [3,000],
минищ шъэ (miniɕ ʂa) [3,100],
минищ шъитӀу (miniɕ ʂitʷʼə) [3,200],
миниплӀ (minipɬʼ) [4,000],
миниплӀы шъэ (minipɬʼəra ʂa) [4,100],
минишъиплӀтӀу (miniʂipɬʼətʷʼ) [4,200],
минишъиплӀщ (miniʂipɬʼəɕ) [4,300],
минитфы шъэ (minitfə ʂa) [5,100],
минишъитфтӀу (miniʂitfətʷʼ) [5,200]...

When there is a certain amount of the noun, the noun is followed by -и (-i) and the multiplier digit root.

for example:

Зы кӀалэ – One boy (zə t͡ʃaːla),
КӀалитӀу – two boys (t͡ʃaːlitʷʼ),
КӀалиплӏ – four boys (t͡ʃaːlipɬʼ),
КӀалишъэ – 100 boys (t͡ʃaːliʂa),
Зы мафэ – one day (zə maːfa),
МафитӀу – two days (maːfitʷʼ),
Мафищы (мафищ) – three days (maːfiɕ).

• Except апэрэ/япэрэ – first (aːpara/jaːpara) are formed by prefix я- (jaː-) and suffix – нэрэ (- nara). For example:

ятӀунэрэ – second (jaːtʷʼənara), ящынэрэ – third (jaːɕənara), яплӀынэрэ – fourth (jaːpɬʼənara).

first – япэрэ [jːpara]

second – ятӀунэрэ [jaːtʷʼənara]

third – ящынэрэ [jaːɕənara]

fourth – яплӀынэрэ [jaːpɬʼənara]

firth – ятфынэрэ [jaːtfənara]

sixth – яхынэрэ [jaːxənara]

seventh – яблынэрэ [jaːblənara]

eighth – яинэрэ [jaːjənara]

ninth – ябгъунэрэ [jaːbʁʷənara]

tenth – япшӀынэрэ [jaːpʃʼənara]

eleventh – япшӀыкӏузынэрэ [jaːpʃʼəkʷʼəzənara]

twelfth – япшӀыкӏутӏунэрэ [jaːpʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼənara]

twenty th – ятӏокӏынэрэ [jaːtʷʼat͡ʃənara]

hundredth – яшъэнэрэ [jaːʂanara]

Япэрэ мафэ – First day (jaːpara maːfa),
ЯтӀонэрэ мафэ – second day (jaːtʷʼənara maːfa),
ЯтӀонэрэ цуакъо – second shoe (jaːpara t͡ʃʷaːqʷa),
Яхэнэрэ классым щегъэжьагъэу тутын сешъо~I have been smoking since the sixth class.

• Are formed by changing the last vowel ~ы (~ə) of number to ~эрэ (~ara):

о плӀэрэ къыосӀогъах – I have told you four times already.

• Number can also define measure of a share: Numbers "one" and "two" are formed by words псау (psaw) (whole, whole), ренэ (rena) (whole, whole about length of time), ныкъо (nəqʷa) (the half).

• Fractional numerals are formed from cardinal numerals with the help of the -(а)нэ /aːna/ morpheme:

щы /ɕə/ "three" – щанэ /ɕaːna/ "third",
плӏы /pɬʼə/ "four" – плӏанэ /pɬʼaːna/ "fourth",
хы "six" – ханэ /xaːna/ "sixth" and so on.

In a sentence: Чӏыгоу къытатыгъэм изыщанэ картоф хэдгъэтӏысхьа́гъ "On one third of the allocated land we have planted potatoes", Хатэм изыщанэ помидор хэдгъэтӀысхагъ- third part of vegetable garden we used for the tomatoes, Ахъщэ къыратыгъэм ыпӏланэ чыфэ ритыгъ – The quarter of the money he received, he lent.

half (1÷2) – ныкъо [nəqʷa]

one third (1÷3) – щанэ [ɕaːna]

two thirds (2÷3) – щанитӏу [ɕaːnitʷʼ] (1÷3 × 2)

one fourth (1÷4) – плӀанэ [pɬʼaːna]

two fourths (2÷4) – плӀанитӏу [pɬʼaːnitʷʼ] (1÷4 × 2)

three fourths (3÷4) – плӀанищ [pɬʼaːniɕ] (1÷4 × 3)

one fifth (1÷5) – тфанэ [tfaːna]

one sixth (1÷6) – ханэ [xaːna]

one seventh (1÷7) – бланэ [blaːna]

one eighth (1÷8) – янэ [jaːna]

one ninth (1÷9) – бгъуанэ [bʁʷaːna]

one tenth (1÷10) – пшӀанэ [pʃʼaːna]

one eleventh (1÷11) – пшӀыкӏузанэ [pʃʼəkʷʼəzaːna]

one twelfth (1÷12) – пшӀыкӏутӏуанэ [pʃʼəkʷʼətʷʼaːna]

one twentieth (1÷20) – тӏокӏанэ [tʷʼat͡ʃaːna]

one hundredth (1÷100) – шъанэ [ʂaːna]

• Separative numerals are formed by repetition of the appropriate cardinal numeral with the help of the morpheme -ры /-rə/:

зырыз /zərəz/ "by one",
тӏурытӏу /tʷʼərətʷʼ/ "by twos",
щырыщ /ɕərəɕ/ "by threes",
плӏырыплӏ /pɬʼərəplʼ/ "by fours",
тфырытф /tfərətf/ "by fives" and so on.

In a sentence: Еджакӏохэр экзаменым тӏурытӏоу чӏахьэщтыгъэх "Pupils entered the examination room by twos".

• Approximate numerals are formed as a combination of three cardinal numerals where the main constructive numeral is, usually, the numeral зы "one". for example

зыхыбл /zəxəbl/ зы-хы-бл "about six or seven",
зытӏущ /zətʷʼəɕ/ зы-тӏу-щ "about two or three".

In a sentence: Непэ садэжь нэбгырэ зытӀущ къыӀухьагъ "About two or three people have approached me today".

• Аркадьев, П. М.; Ландер, Ю. А.; Летучий, А. Б.; Сумбатова, Н. Р.; Тестелец, Я. Г. Введение. Основные сведения об адыгейском языке в кн.: "Аспекты полисинтетизма: очерки по грамматике адыгейского языка" под ред.: П. М. Аркадьев, А. Б. Летучий, Н. Р. Сумбатова, Я. Г. Тестелец. Москва: РГГУ, 2009 (Arkadiev, P. M.; Lander, Yu. A.; Letuchiy, A. B.; Sumbatova, N. R.; Testelets, Ya. G.
• Introduction. Basic information about Adyghe language in "Aspects of polysyntheticity: studies on Adyghe grammar" edited by: P. M. Arkadiev, A. B. Letuchiy, N. R. Sumbatova, Ya. G. Testelets. Moscow, RGGU, 2009) (in Russian) ISBN 978-5-7281-1075-0
• Ranko Matasović, A Short Grammar of East Circassian (Kabardian): [1].
• Caucasus Studies 1 CIRCASSIAN Clause Structure Mukhadin Kumakhov & Karina Vamling

• Adyghe grammar – Introduction Useful site to learn Adyghe grammar
• Adyghe grammar – Detailed (in Russian)
• Adyghe grammar – Circassian language lessons online Another site to learn the Adyghe grammar