Murut people

The Murut people or simply the Muruts is the collective name of an Austronesian ethnic group indigenous to Sabah and Sarawak in Malaysia as well as North Kalimantan in Indonesia and Temburong District in Brunei. Within Sabah, they primarily live in the Interior Division, primarily in the districts of Nabawan (formerly Pensiangan), Tenom, Keningau, Sipitang, and Beaufort, and some in the Sandakan and Tawau divisions, in the Tongod, Kalabakan, Kinabatangan, and Tawau districts. Within Sarawak, the Muruts are found within Lawas district in Limbang division, as well as in the Federal Territory of Labuan. Within North Kalimantan, the Muruts reside within both the Nunukan and Malinau regencies.

The Murut ethnic term between both Sabah and Sarawak carries different meanings based on its respective administration classification, where different categorisations are also present in both Indonesia and Brunei. They constitute an indigenous ethnic community comprising 29 distinct sub-ethnic groups dwelling within the northern inland territories of Borneo.^[3] Originally pagan-animist,^[9] a majority of them have converted to Protestantism,^[10][11] while the remainder either adhere to other branches of Christianity or to Islam, or else remain with their traditional religion. The Muruts in Sabah are generally referred to as "Northern Muruts", while in Brunei, Sarawak, and North Kalimantan, the Muruts consist of "Southern Muruts".^[12][13]

Characterised by their rich cultural diversity, the Murutic languages form a linguistic family encompassing approximately half a dozen closely intertwined Austronesian languages. Murut populations exhibit dispersion in Malaysia's Sabah and the northern part of Sarawak as well as Labuan, in the country of Brunei and the Indonesian North Kalimantan province. Furthermore, the Murut people have close connections with the Tidung, who historically inhabited Borneo's east coast region that underwent processes of Islamisation and Malayisation.^[14]

The term Murut originated from the Brunei Malay ethnic classification term throughout the thalassocracy of the Sultanate of Brunei administration on the western coasts.^[13][15] It is believed to have originated from the Old Malay word turut—ed, which carries the meaning of "to follow", "to move" or "to go" in the English language since the Murut tribe itself based on its origin history was driven from the interior upriver to land further down.^[16] Among the earliest translations is the Malay-English dictionary written by British colonial administrator, diplomat and writer John Crawfurd in 1852, where he described the Muruts as the name of a wild tribe in the north-eastern part of Borneo island.^[17] Murut is also another form originated from the Bajau word belud, meaning hill.^[18] English historian, novelist and travel writer Owen Rutter further described in his writings:

The pagans of British North Borneo are divided into two main tribes, which are given the distinguishing names of Murut and Dusun. These names are however never used by the tribes themselves, but appear to have been applied to them by the Mohammedans invaders (Bajau and Malay). The term Murut is derived from the Bajau word of belud which means "hill" and Dusun is the Malay word for "orchard". So that Orang Murut and Dusun respectively mean "people of the hills" and "people of the orchards".^[19][20]

Throughout the British and Dutch period, the Muruts, especially those living on the side of the Raj of Sarawak and Dutch Borneo (Moeroet), are grouped into the larger Dayak umbrella classification through numerous writings,^[21][22][23] although they are distinct ethnic groups within the broader term.^[24] In Sabah, the Murut term is used to jointly describe the various Murut sub-ethnics, such as the Alumbis, Baucan (Bookan), Binta, Kolor (Kolod, Akolod, or Okolod), Nabai (Nabay), Paluan, Sumambuq (Semambu), Serudong (Serudung), Tagal, Tangara (Tenggara/Tangala), and Timugon.^[4][25][26] The Muruts of Sabah have been categorised as "Northern Muruts", while "Southern Muruts" is used by anthropologists to describe Muruts living within Sarawak, North Kalimantan of Indonesia, and Brunei.^[13] In Sarawak, the Lun Bawang (known as Lundayeh in Sabah) tribe are often described as Muruts,^[25] which is also sometimes extended to include the Kelabits.^{[4][notes 1]} The Muruts are variously referred to with alternative spellings and writings such as Maroot, Marut, Meroot, Merut, Moeroet, Mooroot, Moorut, Morut, Mulut, Murat, and Murút with the literal translation of Murut is "hill people".^[28][29]

The Murut are Bornean indigenous people who lived around the hills and plains of Interior Division at the southwestern part of Sabah, particularly in the administrative districts of Nabawan, Tenom, Keningau, Sipitang and its surrounding areas, which extending further south into Indonesian Borneo.^[30] There are also scattered populations within Beaufort along the Sapulut and Padas rivers, Tongod, Kinabatangan, and Tawau districts.^[30] The Muruts can also be found inhabiting the border areas of Sarawak, (especially around the Lawas and Limbang areas,^[31] where they are also referred to as Tagal people),^[32] North Kalimantan (traditionally concentrated in Malinau Regency and Nunukan Regency),^[33] and Brunei.^[34]

The Murut population in Brunei is mainly found in the sparsely populated Temburong District, but are actually consisting of Southern Murut which is more accurately termed "Lun Bawang".^[31][35] They interacted closely with the Sultanate and were known in the past for contributing to the military might of the latter, although their population within the sultanate has dwindled in recent years.^[36] They are defined as one of the seven indigenous groups that are considered to be Bumiputera in Brunei.^[37] The Murut in Brunei and Sarawak (Southern Murut) is ethnically and linguistically different from Murut in Sabah (Northern Murut).^[13] In Sarawak, the confusing term "Murut" is hence replaced with the term "Lun Bawang", while this has not taken place in Brunei.^[38] The Northern Murut are more commonly termed Tagol or Tagal in Brunei and Sarawak, where they are further divided between lowland (Timugon) and highland (Tagol) subgroups, with the Timugon language serving as the lingua franca for the lowland and the Tagol Murut language for the highland.^[39]

The Muruts of Sabah are divided between lowland and highland Muruts, with further different classifications, the lowland comprising Binta, Bookan, Dalit, Nabai, Serudong, and Timugon, while the highland constitute the Alumbis, Kolor, Paluan, Salalir, Sapulut, Sumambu, and Tahol.^[12] Among the lowland Muruts, the Nabai mostly lived within the plains of Keningau, while the Timugon are within the plains of Tenom.^[12] Within Beaufort, the Binta (also known as Sandewad or Sambukid) lived around the Padas River; originally from Tenom, they had migrated to the area due to an epidemic in the past.^[26] Another sub-ethnic, the Serudong lived around the Serudong River within the East Coast of Tawau Division and Sibuko Bay.^[40]

Among the highland, the Paluan lived along the Padas River and spread to the east of the Dalit River of Sook of Keningau and west of Sipitang.^[41] The Dalit within both Dalit and Sook areas of Keningau and along the Pegalan River. In the north of the Rundum area and the Tagol River, another sub-ethnic of the Tahol, the Rundum, lived within the area.^[41] The main Tahol lived around the areas of Ulu Bole, Kemabong, Tenom, and Tomani, while the Kolor are within the Ulu Bole and Sipitang areas, the Sapulut are within south Sook and the Sapulut River, and the Pensiangan (also known as the Lagungan) are within Sapulut and spread across southeast Serudong and the Kalabakan River.^[41] Another highland Murut, the Tengara, are spread across the Ulu Kinabatangan River, to the western area of the Ulu Kuamut River.^[41] Within the federation of Malaysia, the Muruts are also considered as one of Sabah Bumiputeras.^[42]

Throughout the British administration, in 1915, a protracted drought caused widespread crops failure and subsequent lack of food production among the Murut community in North Borneo, where the situation constrained by the taxation system introduced by the British led the Murut spiritual leaders to claim the problem was caused by their ancestral spirits angered towards the systems.^[43] A Murut community leader named Ontoros Antanom (Antanum) received unwavering support from the chiefs and villagers from around Keningau, Tenom, Pensiangan (present-day Nabawan), and his stronghold of Rundum, where he further led the Rundum uprising against the North Borneo Chartered Company (NBCC) but was killed during the fighting against the company forces in Selangit River near Pensiangan.^[44][45][46]

The Muruts are represented through their respective sub-ethnic associations, which are further jointly united through the primary Murut ethnic association. Prior to the formation of the federation of Malaysia, the Muruts together with the Dusuns stipulated various condition through the 20-point agreement for the North Borneo Crown to be part of the federation,^[48] constitute several terms from the indigenous Dusuns and Muruts for the federal government to guaranteed their rights within the federation for them to continuously living in peaceful and their rights be respected and honoured by the federal government by maintaining freedom of religion with no state religion for North Borneo, all lands in the territory should be under the North Borneo government, and the federal need to regard and respecting traditional indigenous values, to ensure continuous peace and loyalty from the indigenous community.^[47]

Several theories suggested that the Murutic peoples arrived in the northern part of Borneo through a first-wave migration by a land bridge from mainland Southeast Asia when the island was connected within the Sundaland region before they were pushed further inland when the second-wave migration occurred by the Dusunic-speaking peoples.^[30] The present Murut, Kadazan, and Dusun peoples represent the direct descendants of those inhabitants, with early researchers also finding a closer relationship between the Murutic and Dusunic peoples of Sabah and some of the neighbouring indigenous ethnic groups in the Philippines, Taiwan, and mainland Southeast Asia.^[29][50] Based on genetic studies on the Bornean agriculturalist ethnic groups, the Murut are more closely related to the other agriculturalist ethnics of Dusun and Lundayeh, as well as to the Amis of Taiwan and the Kankanaey tribe in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines,^[51] including the Lebbo' Dayak in East Kalimantan of Indonesia, than to the indigenous nomadic hunter-gatherer ethnic groups of Punan Batu in East Kalimantan and Mlabri of Thailand and Laos.^[52]

Within Sabah, the Muruts are further classified into around ten to fourteen sub-ethnics, comprising the lowland Muruts of Binta, Bookan, Dalit, Nabai, Serudong, and Timugon, while the highland constitute the Alumbis, Kolor, Paluan, Salalir, Sapulut, Sumambu, Tahol, and Tangala (Tengara).^[26][53][54] The lowland Muruts are concentrated within the plains of the districts of Beaufort, Keningau, Tenom, and Tawau, while the highland Muruts are within the inner location around the districts of Kalabakan, Keningau, Nabawan, Sipitang, Tenom, and Tongod.^[53]

During the administration of the North Borneo Chartered Company (NBCC), both the Dusun and Murut are the predominating indigenous tribes of British North Borneo.^[55] Both are similarly classed in groups and subdivisions; the Muruts of the plains consisting the Keningau Muruts, Tenom Muruts, and Muruts in the valleys of lower Padas River while the hill Muruts consisting the Paluans on the hill of Padas River in Tenom area, towards the eastern area of Dalit River of Sook, Keningau and Sipitang District, the Dalit Muruts of Dalit and Sook valleys, the Rundum Muruts of Tagul River spread towards the neighbouring Dutch border, the Tagals (also Rundum Muruts) who have settled around the Ulu Bole area of Sipitang where they are known as Tagal Muruts, the Kolor Muruts, formerly living within Dutch territory of northern Kalimantan before migrating to the Bole area, the Sapulut Muruts who living around the hills south of Sook Plain, Pensiangan (Lagungan) Muruts, closely related to Sapulut Muruts and spread throughout the Dutch border and southeast of Serudong and Kalabakan rivers, the Lundayeh Muruts which reside within the upper waters of Padas River and into Sarawak, and the Kwijau which is distinct from the entire of Murut tribes, also occasionally associated with the Dusun groups.^[56][57] British researcher C. Hudson Southwell describes the differences between the Sarawak and North Borneo Muruts in his work "The structure of the Murut language" in 1949:

The term Murut is applied in Sarawak and North Borneo to different people. In neither case is the name self-applied. The North Borneo "Murut" use either the name Tagal or a local place name in describing themselves, while the Sarawak 'Muruts' call themselves Lun Bawang or Lun Daya.^[58]

The Murut people are divided into three linguistic groups, namely:^[59][60]

• Murutic languages cluster:
  • Okolod (North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[61]
  • Keningau Murut (Keningau District, Sabah, Malaysia)^[62]
  • Tagal or Tahol Murut (Sabah, Malaysia and North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[61]
  • Paluan (Sabah, Malaysia)^[61]
  • Selungai Murut (North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[61]
  • Timugon Murut (Sabah, Malaysia)^[61]
  • Binta Murut (Sabah, Malaysia)^[61]
  • Bulusu Murut (North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[33]
  • Tingalan Murut (North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[63]
  • Agabag Murut (North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[64]
• Northern languages cluster:
  • Bookan (Sabah, Malaysia)^[65]
• Tidong languages cluster:
  • Tidung people (Tarakan, North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[61]
  • Bulungan people (Bulungan Regency, North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[66]
  • Kalabakan (Sabah, Malaysia)^[62]
  • Sembakung Murut (Sabah, Malaysia; North Kalimantan, Indonesia)^[61]
  • Serudung Murut (Sabah, Malaysia)^[61]

The Murut were agriculturalists who practised shifting cultivation of hill paddy and tapioca, supplementing their daily diet with hunting and with river fishing.^[67][68] They once live in communal longhouses, usually near rivers, using the water source as their transportation networks. Most have now converted to Christianity, especially the Christian branch of Protestantism,^[10][11] with others adhering to various Christian branches such as Roman Catholic, and some being Muslims, although traditional beliefs are especially strongly maintained by Muruts living in the further deep Bornean jungles in the interior.^[9] The culture of the Muruts, where they are known as the "hill people", is rich in warrior traditions and intricate bead art, as well as their agile Magunatip (bamboo dance).^[69] Centred in the Nabawan (the former Pensiangan), Tenom, Keningau, and nearby areas such as Sipitang and Beaufort districts, they occasionally hunted with their blowpipe (sapok, sinapok, or sumpit),^[70] and celebrated their rich culture through the featurement of various handicrafts, gong music, and their festivals such as the Kalimaran.^[71] The Murut Cultural Centre in Tenom District serves as the main centre for all Sabah Murut sub-tribe cultural points, where it serves as a venue for various cultural activities related to the tribe's development and promotion of cultural arts and heritage.^[72]

The Muruts were the last of North Borneo's ethnic groups to renounce headhunting after the Dusuns and in the past were fearlessly known for such practice.^[73][74][75] Together with the neighbouring Raj of Sarawak ethnic of Iban, collecting heads of enemies traditionally served a very important role in Murut spiritual beliefs.^[76][77] For example, in the dowry of the Murut culture in the past, a Murut male could only get married after he presented at least one enemy head to the family of the Murut female that he wanted to marry.^[78] Murut wedding or funeral feasts can last several days, with ancient Chinese jars holding a prominent status in Murut customs, where the jars, commonly known among Muruts as tajau (pottery), became places of spirits, with larger jars formerly used as coffins.^[79] During the harvest festival, which takes place annually in March, the Muruts have their own beauty pageant of Ralaa Kalimaran, often held in areas such as Tenom District,^[80][81] where they also jointly celebrated the Unduk Ngadau in the month of May, which encompasses various ethnicities, including the Murut.^[82] Young women (ralaa) of Muruts, and others from the Kadazan, Dusun, and Rungus descent from different districts compete for this title at the KDCA Compound in Penampang District. The beauty pageant is held to commemorate the spirit of Kadazan-Dusun Huminodun, a mythological character of unparalleled beauty who is said to have given her life in exchange for a bountiful harvest for her people.^[83] Within the Murut folklore culture and celebration of the Kalimaran festival, the festivity also had an identical origin as the Kadazan-Dusun Huminodun, where the word Ralaa represents a young woman of Murut that was sacrificed, and the woman used to produce various Murut handicrafts such as mats, silaung, and woven Sampoi cloth during her lifetime.^[80]

The main traditional dance for the ethnic especially among Muruts in Keningau, Nabawan, and Tenom districts is the Magunatip,^[69] which is derived from the Murut word apit and carries the meaning of "to press between two surfaces".^[84][85] It is an energetic indigenous warrior dance by the interior Nabaai, Paluan, and Timugon Muruts as well as Kwijau Dusun (Kujau) and Tambunan Dusun which has been practised for hundreds of years,^[86][87] with dancers putting their feet in and out between clapping bamboo poles throughout the performances without being trapped.^[88][89] The Tahol Murut in the three districts are also known for their sasayau and alang ra illau dances,^[90][91] the Bookan Murut from Sook, Keningau for their mangalai,^[92] the Kolor Murut from Sapulut for their magalai and their Murut version of sumazau,^[93][94] the Nabaai Murut from inner Keningau for their mansayau,^[95] the Okolod Murut were originally from Pensiangan (present-day Nabawan) before settled in Sipitang and known for their alang sirung and alang kolod,^[96] the Paluan Murut from Sipitang for their ansayau,^[97] and the Tangala Murut from Tongod for their tinggung agalai and sayau agumbak.^[98]

The Lansaran is a Murut traditional game and also categorised as the tribe traditional dance heritage, originating from the Murut word lumasar, which carries the meaning "to soar" or "swing", where both males and females gather in their traditional attire, forming a circle while jumping on the trampoline-like bamboo floor to reach the suspended kinkilat.^[99][100] Popular among the Muruts of Keningau and Tenom, it was usually held in the past to welcome the return of Murut warriors from ngayau who had achieved victory in the battlefield.^[101] The Murut also has a musical heritage consisting of various types of agung (tagung in Dusun)^[102] ensembles composed of large, hanging, shallow-sided gongs with small differences between back and front diameters, which are more common within the Murutic and Dusunic communities than the Paitanic of northeastern and both the Bajau and Iranun people of the western coast of Sabah.^[102] Bamboo was also used by the Muruts as musical instruments to compose songs.^[103] Some musical instruments, like the tangkung (similar to that of a guitar, except it has only two strings), are made from wood and are usually played during their leisure time.^[39] Sompoton is another instrument for the Muruts, which is also owned by the Dusuns and Kadazans.^[104] Kulundi is an instrument associated with the Tangara Muruts of Inarad in Upper Kinabatangan, especially in religious or cultural ceremonies.^[105]

The traditional ethnic attire of the Muruts is varied according to each subgroup. Black colour are synonyms among the Muruts, similarly to the Dusuns, Kadazans and Rungus.^[106] Traditional dress for Murut male was a jacket made of tree bark (Artocarpus tamaran), a red loincloth, and a headdress called lalandau which is usually worn by both male and female which further decorated with the Argus pheasant feathers.^[107] Murut female wore a black sleeveless blouse and sarong, which fell just below the knees.^[106] Like most of the other indigenous groups in Sabah, the Murut decorated their clothing with distinctive beadwork and also made belts out of old silver coins,^[75] another belt made of reddish-brown glass beads plus yellow and blue beads was hung loosely around the waist.^[39][108] The Tahol Murut female dress of pinongkoloh, which is usually in black colour and colourful floral motifs, is further decorated with beads of various unique patterns and designs.^[109] It consists of eight components: babaru linantian (black sleeveless shirt made of cotton fabric), tapi' linantian (black long dress), pipirot linggit (belt made of coins), salupai (fine beads), sinikot (dangling headdress consisting of two sets: sinikot taun and sinikot manai), rarangkol (necklace made of round beads known as rarangkol pumping), holong (wrist jewellery) and bungkas (waist decoration or bengkung made of white beads).^[110][111]

The lalandau headdress in the past used to be the main head cover for Murut male warriors, with each feather's number signifying death and the total number of enemies that had been killed by the wearer.^[112] Another head cover, the silaung/siraung or sirung, is used mainly by most Murut sub-ethnics to cover them from rain and sunlight during their agricultural activities.^[112] Traditional materials commonly used to produce this craft include bark, rattan, bamboo, bemban (Donax canniformis) and mengkuang (screwpine) leaves, which can be found in the surroundings of the Murut native ranges' homeland.^[112] The tavil was once used as a back cover body armour by the Muruts from the blowpipe attack of fellow rivals.^[113] In the upper corner of the armour, a string is placed so that it can be tied around the waist, and the surface is woven and decorated with sinusu motifs, which are the most dominant motifs on most tavils found, which seem to be structures in the shape of the armour and are reinforced by vertical and horizontal lines forming a '+' symbol.^[113] Several other motifs, including the minato, sunsulit, tinampinak and zigzag.^[113] Many beadwork and handicraft pattern motifs of the Muruts also have many similarities with the Punan and Iban of Sarawak.^[114] The use of beads among the Muruts are not only considered decorative items but also carry symbolic meanings related to social spiritual beliefs, women's maturity, and their role in the community.^[115]

The Murut traditional handicrafts of kelarai are most notable among those in Keningau and Tenom, where the designs have distinctive white and black floral and geometric patterns and are made from salingkawang (wild creeper of the Lygodium family), as well as bamboo and rattan.^[116][117] The process of kelarai making needed precise calculations to produce the desired shape, the bamboo is painted with black smoke from kerosene lamps collected overnight before being mixed with water obtained from the bark, or in the local language known as the uvul tree.^[118] The black colour would be the pattern on every handicraft produced and had its own meaning related to the stories of the Murut tribe, as well as a connection with nature.^[118] British North Borneo government officer George Cathcart Woolley once made documentation on the variety of Murut basketwork, including the use of motifs and symbolic themes gathered through interviews with the Murut community.^[119] Apin and lantungan refer to the Murut term for woven mat, especially among Tahol Muruts, with three different types of apin lantungan, lantungan ulia, and lantungan puaran.^[120]

The Murut traditional basket, the buyong, was widely used in the past to gather forest produce.^[120][121] By different names and sizes, such as the barait (among Muruts of Keningau), the sasaging and takiding (among Muruts of the Padas River), and the balait (Muruts of Tenom).^[120][122] Throughout the headhunting period, traditional baskets were also used in the past by Murut warriors to carry human heads of slain enemies.^[121] Several other Murut baskets, mostly small in size, including the banso, bundasan, kalong, kapa, kapon, sasar, tapan, takinan, and tinkapan.^[123] The tikalis were used to winnow rice and as a tray during wedding ceremonies in the past, whereas now they are being used more as souvenirs and home decorations as well as props in dance performances.^[124] Various initiatives are being carried out to preserve Murut handicraft culture, such as teaching younger generations the handicraft and embroidery-making skills to ensure a continuous legacy.^[125]

Traditional Murut weddings in Sabah are known for their unique, lively, and long customs, often involving the entire related family community. They are characterised by elaborate dowry (barian) customs, day-long ceremonies, and beaded traditional clothing, which include special ceremonies such as tina'uh, bului, or limpoho.^[78] Although modernity has made ceremonies like tina'uh increasingly rare, important elements such as beaded beads and tajau (pottery) as dowry items are still maintained to symbolise the unification of the marriage bond.^[126] The use of tajau in Murut marriage customs is inseparable since most Murut believe the spirits in the tajau will determine the longevity of every Murut couple's relationship, where its usage started from the beginning of the marriage proposal along with other items such as beads and cooking pans.^[127] Further other items include the gong, which is believed to strengthen the marriage bond; the special parang berambut (similar to the Iban parang ilang), which is, however, owned by only certain individuals, especially Murut warriors, and has been passed down through generations since the spirit within it can cause someone to fall sick (caused by sangor from the item spirit); the bului (Murut blowpipe), which can protect the family couple; as well as the bungkas (female accessories), which can bring happiness to the recently married couple.^[128]

After successfully completing the marriage procession, the village head will usually give wishes to both the bride and groom, such as:^[129]

The Muruts, especially among the Tahol Murut (Tagal) sub-ethnic of inner Sapulut, Nabawan District (formerly Pensiangan District), and Tenom District,^[130] are famously known for their "barian sampai mati" (dowry until the end of lifetime), where the male side will continuously give dowry to the female side even until he becomes old and already has grandchildren.^[78][131] During the marriage, the female side will spend all their money on food to be given to the male side, while the male side brings tajau, beads and various other dowry items, and if the male is unable to finish all the food given by the female, both are required to bring the remaining.^[131] Several stages are involved during the procession which need to be followed by the male, including the subak omom, subak inasi, subak alabak, and inasi.^[131] The Tahol Murut also have their own sogit rules, which are recognised by the Native Court of Sabah,^[132] for various offences related to married couples, such as incest, second marriage to a widow, abstinence period for widows and widowers (death of wife), lapau (cheating), divorce, and ambangan (polygyny).^[133]

Since most of the Muruts are farmers who hunt, gather forest products and freshwater fishes, which are also influenced by the geographical conditions of their settlement in the interior of the country, which is mountainous, forested and riverine.^[134] The terrain provides many sources of food, with Murut cuisine based on forest and river produce as well as plants and hunting found in the forest, similar to their other related indigenous ethnic group, the Dusunic groups.^[135] In Murut traditional cuisine, cassava and tapioca are important crops, providing the main ingredients in a number of the ethnic variations of foods.^[136] Various types of cassava dishes, either cassava shoots, boiled or fried, including ferns, tarap (Artocarpus odoratissimus) fruit, pickled fish, and meat, as well as sago made from cassava, have become part of Murut staples. Being far from the sea area, the Murut diet primarily consists of freshwater fish.^[137]

Among the common staples for the Muruts in Sabah are hill rice of linopot (also part of the symbolic dish for Kadazan, Dusun, and Rungus people, although the Murut versions are slightly different), inau (tapioca starch mixture which is closed in appearance to the ambuyat but different in ingredients), umbus soup (cassava shoots soup), polor soup (bangkala or Arenga undulatifolia), papait sinamsam (boiled fish), tamba (preserved fish in salt and rice), tamba nu tambang (dried Sambar deer meat, also commonly known as payau meat among the Kadazan, Dusun, and Rungus), papait tinunuan (baked or roasted fish or meat), umbus tumis (boiled cassava leaves), kuraw tumis (boiled fern leaves), soko or rebung (bamboo shoots usually paired with smoked meats), ului kuih (fried or steamed cassava snack), and pulut kuih (glutinous rice like wajik, wrapped with banana leaves or irik (Phacelophrynium maximum leaves).^[138]

The Muruts of Sabah are known also for their raw wild boar fermented in bamboo tubes called jaruk,^[139] and tuhau pickle, which is made from wild ginger (Etlingera coccinea) mixed with vinegar, chillies, and lime, as a staple among the Murut and Kadazan-Dusun communities.^[140] Within Brunei, the Muruts are known for their baku tubu umbut tuhau (heart of palm with wild ginger of tuhau, a sort of pickled traditional food), biter kicep bubur cendawan kodop (Schizophyllum commune mushroom porridge), nuba tenga (traditional fragrant rice which is also the symbolic dish of Southern Muruts), kelupis baung, sup terong asam ikan luang (eggplant sour soup with Rasbora family fish), tutung suman (cassava kuih), libit leaves, tenum puluh suman rebung (bamboo shoots), tenum pais lauk (freshwater fishes wrapped in leaves and cooked on live coals, which subsequently gives a distinctive smoky aroma), and many others.^[141]

The majority of the Murut are Christians of Protestant adherents, with some Catholic and minority Islam.^{[11][142][143]} Prior to their conversion to Abrahamic religions, the dominant religion among the Muruts was Momolianism (Traditional North Bornean religion), which became the origin of the indigenous laws which are recognised and preserved by the Native Court of Sabah.^[9][11] Their traditional beliefs were once an integral part of Murut traditional life, where various ceremonies were held periodically, although communal ceremonies connected with warfare and headhunting have largely disappeared, while household rites are still being kept as part of the tradition.^[144] The arrival of Christianity to the Murut traced its history back to 1896 when Rev. Fred Perry of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), as part of the Anglican mission, trekked across the Crocker Mountains to Keningau District, preaching to the Murut villages and establishing a boarding school.^[145] Further missions by the Borneo Evangelical Mission (BEM) to reach the interior Tahol Muruts in the 1930s faced challenges and limited initial success due to their strong Animist-Pagan beliefs,^[146] leading to a shift in focus toward other indigenous groups of their closely related tribe, the Lundayeh.^[147][148]

The arrival of British missionaries in the 1880s to North Borneo, particularly the Catholic Mill Hill Missionaries (MHM),^[149] led to further significant social change among the Muruts,^[150][151] with the efforts resulting in other Murut sub-ethnic embracing Roman Catholicism. The Timugon Muruts, warmly received the Roman Catholic mission, and by the 1960s, almost every one of them had converted to the religion.^[152] The MHM played a significant role in the socio-economic development and welfare of indigenous communities in North Borneo, beginning in the late 19th century and intensifying in the 1950s and 1960s where they were crucial sponsors and initiators of resettlement, education, and agricultural development in remote areas, with the transition of indigenous groups into settled agriculturalists.^[151] The vast majority of Muruts in Keningau, Tenom, and Nabawan (formerly Pensiangan) adhered to Protestant Christianity based on the Lutheran section mission brought by the Basel Mission, which is now the Basel Christian Church of Malaysia (BCCM),^[153][154] formerly known as the Borneo-Basel Self-Established Church, together with the mission from the BEM, or Borneo Evangelical Church (BEC), of Evangelicalism and Charismatic.^[155]

With positive changes being observed by their fellow Muruts towards the community, especially through improved literacy through religious education which contributed to community development, a group of Tahol Muruts travelled by themselves to the neighbouring district of Sipitang to meet missionary Alan Belcher, asking for the Bible to be taught to them.^{[147][148][156]} A significant minority of the Murut follow Islam, and despite a significant number of them adhering to major Abrahamic religions, the Adats still play a large part in the Murut culture.^[157] This group underwent a period of Islamisation throughout the administration of the United Sabah National Organisation (USNO) in the 1960s and especially after 1973,^[158][159] when Islam was controversially amended as an official state religion of Sabah, which subsequently eroded the original agreement written in the oath stone promised between the federal government of Malaysia and the indigenous interior Dusuns and Muruts of North Borneo that there shall be no official religion for the territory.^{[notes 2]} Among the Muslim Muruts, such as the Tahol Muruts of Nabawan, where local Adats are strongly preserved and practised widely,^[162] there has also been contradiction between the local ethnic laws and Islamic law since any law related to the Muslims of the country falls under Malaysia's state Islamic jurisprudence of Sharia rules.^[163]

The Murutic languages are composed of various Murut sub-ethnic languages spoken over the southwestern portion of the state of Sabah, neighbouring Sarawak and Indonesian Borneo.^[30][164] The Murut languages within Sabah are referred to as "Northern Murut languages", while those in Brunei,^[165] Sarawak,^[166] and North Kalimantan of Indonesia are "Southern Murut languages".^[167][168] In Sarawak, the Murut language term refers closely to the ethnic Kelabit people as well as those in Brunei, North Kalimantan and the upper Padas River of Sabah, the Lundayeh ethnic, while in Sabah the language refers to the ethnic inhabiting the southwest portion and parts of North Kalimantan, with great similarities to the languages of the Philippines of Tagalog, similar to the Kadazan, Dusun, and the Rungus.^{[169][170][171]}

The use of the language has been declining due to the use of Malay by the Malaysian federal government and the use of English by missionaries, which was done through the method of language shift enforced by the work of both the colonial and federal governments.^[172] Several language preservation policies have been initiated by the government of Sabah to prevent the continuous decline, which is also happening to other groups of indigenous languages of Sabah.^[173] In 2024, around ten primary schools in the Tenom District become the pilot projects for teaching the Timugon Murut language.^[174] This was followed with the introduction of Timugon Murut online dictionary in early 2026.^[175][176] Kemabong Assemblyman Rubin Balang, being a Murut native speaker himself, also emphasised the need for the language to be elevated as a marker of identity.^[177]

Being indigenous to Sabah and within the federation of Malaysia, the Murut are conferred the same political, educational and economic rights as the predominant Malay population of Malaysia.^[42] The term ascribed to this is "Bumiputera" (from Sanskrit "bhumiputra"), a Malay word which translates to "sons of the land".^[178]

• Antanum (alternatively spelled as Antanom) (1885–1915) – Murut warrior who fought against the British North Borneo Chartered Company (NBCC) but was killed while fighting against the company forces in Selangit River near Pensiangan.^[44][46]
• Gounon Lulus (alternatively spelled as Gaunon Lulus) – Murut man who built a railroad from Tanjung Aru, Jesselton District to Melalap, Tenom District of British North Borneo with British civil engineer Arthur Joseph West.^{[179][180][181]}
• Andre Anura – Sabah and Malaysian athlete from Tenom District.^[182]
• Rubin Balang – Sabah State Minister for Rural Development.^[183][184]
• Riduan Rubin – Tenom MP and son of Rubin Balang.^[185]
• Noorita Sual – Senator of Malaysian Senate and Parliament member.^[186][187]
• Raime Unggi – former member of the Malaysian Parliament.^[188][189]
• Tun Ahmad Koroh (né Thomas Koroh) (1925–1978) – fifth head of state (TYT) of Sabah, also of partial Dusun ancestry.^[190]
• Tun Mohamad Adnan Robert (né Michael Robert) (1917–2003) – sixth head of state (TYT) of Sabah.^[191]
• Tan Sri Suffian Koroh (1930–2018) – former deputy Chief Minister of Sabah.^[192][193]
• John Daukom (1937–2010) – former Sabah athlete and Malaysian Olympic sprinter.^[194]

• Crawfurd, John (1852). A Grammar and Dictionary of the Malay Language: With a Preliminary Dissertation. Smith, Elder.
• Bonwick, James (1873). The Treasury of Languages: A Rudimentary Dictionary of Universal Philology. Hall and Company.
• Cator, Dorothy (1905). Everyday Life Among the Head-hunters: And Other Experiences from East to West. Longmans, Green, and Company.
• Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1912). Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
• The Sarawak Museum Journal: For the Promotion of Scientific Knowledge and Study of the Natives and Natural History of the Island of Borneo ... U.S. Government Printing Office. 1913.
• Nederlandsch-Indië oud en nieuw [Dutch East Indies old and new] (in Dutch). Tijdschrift Nederl. Indië Oud & Nieuw. 1919.
• Catholic Missions. Society for the Propagation of the Faith. 1919.
• Mallinckrodt, Jacob (1928). Het adatrecht van Borneo [The customary law of Borneo] (in Dutch). M. Dubbeldeman.
• Rutter, Owen (1 January 1922). British North Borneo : an account of its history, resources, and native tribes. Dalcassian Publishing Company.
• Rutter, Owen (1929). The Pagans of North Borneo (First ed.). Hutchinson & Co (Publishers) Ltd, London. pp. 227–245 – via Internet Archive.
• Woolley, G. C. (1932). "I. Murut Basketwork". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 10 (1 (113)). Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society: 23–26. JSTOR 41587430.
• North Borneo (1953). Native Affairs Bulletin.
• Great Britain Colonial Office (1960). Colony of North Borneo: Annual Report. H.M. Stationery Office.
• American University (Washington, D. C.) Foreign Areas Studies Division (1964). Area Handbook for Indonesia. U.S. Government Printing Office.
• United States Army Special Warfare Center (Fort Bragg N.C.) (1968). Borneo Case Study. United States Army Special Warfare School.
• Edwards, Leonard; Stevens, Peter W. (1971). Short Histories of the Lawas and Kanowit Districts. Borneo Literature Bureau.
• Prentice, D. J. (1971). The Murut Languages of Sabah. Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-85883-068-4.
• Oceania: A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Native Peoples of Australia, New Guinea, and the Islands of the Pacific Ocean. University of Sydney. 1975.
• Khoo, Soo Hock (1976). Brunei in Transition: Aspects of Its Human Geography in the Sixties. Department of Geography, University of Malaya. Retrieved 15 January 2026.
• Maxwell, Allen Richmond (1980). Urang Darat: An Ethnographic Study of the Kadayan of Labu Valley, Brunei. Yale University.
• Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Asian Studies, 1980: Southeast Asia. Asian Research Service. 1980.
• Madisah, Japuin (1986). Tatacara adat istiadat dan kebudayaan Kadazan [Kadazan customs and cultural procedures] (in Malay). Sikuk Publication.
• Olid, Soguli; Mudikdjo, Kooswardhono; Suratmo, F. G; Manan, Syafrii (1986). Economic participation of the Muruts at Karamatoi resettlement scheme, Sabah, Malaysia. Master Thesis of MT - Human Ecology (Thesis). Bogor, Indonesia. Archived from the original on 26 February 2026 – via IPB University Scientific Repository.
• Langub, Jayl (1987). "Ethnic Self-Labelling of the Murut or "Lun Bawang" of Sarawak". Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia. 2 (2). Singapore: ISEAS – Yusof Ishak Institute: 289–299. JSTOR 41056733.
• Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. (1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-909480-8.
• Essays on Brunei Darussalam. Brunei Academy of Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam. 1992.
• Benggon-Charuruks, Irene; Padasian, Janette (1993). Cultures, Customs, and Traditions of Sabah, Malaysia: An Introduction. Sabah Tourism Promotion Corporation. ISBN 978-983-020-000-2.
• Borneo Research Council (Williamsburg, Va) Extraordinary (1993). Language and Oral Traditions in Borneo (Conference 1990 ed.). The Council. ISBN 978-0-9629568-6-7.
• Ti, Teow Chuan (1994). Issues and Challenges in Developing Nature Tourism in Sabah: Proceedings of the Seminar on Nature Tourism as a Tool for Development and Conservation, Held at Kundasang, Sabah on 27-29 March 1994. Institute for Development Studies. ISBN 978-967-9910-31-5.
• Martin, Peter W. (1994). Shifting Patterns of Language Use in Borneo. Borneo Research Council. ISBN 978-0-9629568-5-0.
• Brooks, Ronald J. (1995). Under Five Flags. Pentland Press. ISBN 978-1-85821-322-4.
• Tryon, Darrell T. (1995). Comparative Austronesian Dictionary: An Introduction to Austronesian Studies. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-012729-4.
• Talib, Naimah S. (1999). Administrators and Their Service: The Sarawak Administrative Service Under the Brooke Rajahs and British Colonial Rule. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-983-56-0031-9.
• Visiting Arts Regional Profile: Asia Pacific Arts Directory. UNESCO Publishing. 1996. ISBN 978-0-86355-296-0.
• Martin, Peter W.; Oz̊óg, Conrad; Poedjosoedarmo, Gloria R. (1996). Language Use and Language Change in Brunei Darussalam. Ohio University Center for International Studies. ISBN 978-0-89680-193-6.
• The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Languages and literature. Archipelago Press. 1998. ISBN 978-981-3018-52-5.
• Kroeger, Paul R. (1998). "Language Classification in Sarawak: A Status Report" (PDF). S.I.L. International. LIII (74) (Sarawak Museum Journal ed.). Dallas, Texas, United States: 137–173. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2026 – via Dallas International University.
• Phelan, Peter R. (2001). Head-hunting and the Magang Ceremony in Sabah. Natural History Publications (Borneo). ISBN 978-983-812-045-6.
• Gordon, Alijah (2001). The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago. Malaysian Sociological Research Institute. ISBN 978-983-99866-2-4.
• Fernandez, Callistus (2001). "THE LEGEND BY SUE HARRIS: A CRITIQUE OF THE RUNDUM REBELLION AND A COUNTER ARGUMENT ON THE REBELLION" (PDF). Kajian Malaysia, Department of Sociology, National University of Singapore. XIX (2). Singapore: 61–78. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2026 – via Universiti Sains Malaysia.
• Frawley, William J. (1 May 2003). International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-977178-3.
• Ooi, K.G. (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia from Angkor Wat to East Timor [3 Volumes]. Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.
• Holley, Stephen (2004). A White Headhunter in Borneo. Natural History Publications. ISBN 978-983-812-081-4.
• Hakim Mohad, Abd (2005). "Tajau dan Peranannya dalam Budaya Masyarakat Murut di Tenom, Sabah" [Tajau and its Role in the Culture of the Murut Community in Tenom, Sabah]. Jurnal Peradaban Melayu (in Malay). 3: 61–69. Archived from the original on 23 January 2026 – via Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris E-Journal.
• Footprint Borneo. Footprint. 2006. ISBN 978-1-904777-60-1.
• Lee, Elaine (2006). Ethnic Musical Instruments of Malaysia. Win Publication. ISBN 978-983-2312-17-8.
• Wahsalfelah, Siti Norkhalbi Haji (2007). Textiles and Identity in Brunei Darussalam. White Lotus Press. ISBN 978-974-480-094-7.
• Dewan budaya [Cultural hall] (in Malay). Institute of Language and Literature, Malaysia. 2007.
• Thiessen, Tamara (2008). Bradt Travel Guide - Borneo. Bradt Travel Guides. ISBN 978-1-84162-252-1.
• Lim, Regina (2008). Federal-state Relations in Sabah, Malaysia: The Berjaya Administration, 1976-85. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-812-2.
• West, Barbara A. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-7109-8.
• Tiwary, Shiv Shanker; Kumar, Rajeev (2009). Encyclopaedia of Southeast Asia and Its Tribes. Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-261-3837-1.
• Datta-Ray, Sunanda K. (2009). Looking East to Look West: Lee Kuan Yew's Mission India. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4279-04-8.
• Pugh-Kitingan, Jacqueline (2010). "From Brunei? Preliminary enquiries about Iranun gong-making and metalwork on the Tempasuk Plains of Sabah, Malaysia" (PDF). Universiti Malaysia Sabah (Piakandatu ami Dr. Howard P. McKaughan, Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines and SIL Philippines ed.): 225–229. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 December 2025 – via SIL Global.
• Reid, Anthony (2010). Imperial Alchemy: Nationalism and Political Identity in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-87237-9.
• Regis, Patricia; Baptist, Judeth John (2012). Food Heritage of Sabah: A Cultural Perspective. Department of National Heritage, Ministry of Information, Communications and Culture Malaysia. ISBN 978-983-3862-19-1.
• Cense, Anton Abraham; Uhlenbeck, E. M. (29 June 2013). Critical Survey of Studies on the Languages of Borneo. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-011-8925-5.
• Ibrahim, Ismail (2013). "HUBUNGAN MOTIF DAN IKON ALAM DALAM PEMBENTUKAN CORAK ANYAMAN MURUT DALAM KONTEKS REKAAN KONTEMPORARI" [THE RELATIONSHIP OF NATURAL MOTIFS AND ICONS OF MURUT IN THE FORMATION OF WREATHING PATTERN IN THE CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY DESIGN] (PDF). International Journal of Creative Future and Heritage (TENIAT) (in Malay). 1 (1): 169–177. doi:10.47252/teniat.v1i1.75. ISSN 2289-4527. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 February 2026 – via Faculty of Creative Technology and Heritage, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan. Text is licensed by International Journal of Creative Future and Heritage (TENIAT) under CC BY NC 4.0
• Berinai, Judy (2013). Liturgical Inculturation in Anglican Worship in light of the Spirituality of the Indigenous People of Sabah, Malaysia (PDF). Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Middlesex University, Oxford Centre for Mission Studies (Thesis). Hendon, London, United Kingdom. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2026 – via Middlesex University Research Repository.
• King, Julie K.; et al. (King, John Wayne; Spitzack, John A.) (2015). "The Murutic language family". Languages of Sabah: A Survey Report. C-78. Pacific Linguistics: 155–223. doi:10.15144/PL-C78.155. Archived from the original on 13 January 2026 – via Australian National University Open Research Repository. Text is licensed by Australian National University under CC BY-SA 4.0
• Woolley, George Cathcart (2015). The Diaries of George C. Woolley. Department of Sabah Museum. ISBN 978-983-9638-34-9.
• Pugh-Kitingan, Jacqueline (2015). "Cultural and Religious Diversity in Sabah and Relationships with Surrounding Areas" (PDF). Islam and Cultural Diversity in Southeast Asia. ILCAA, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. CORE output ID 195718969. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 May 2025.
• Chee Wei, Yew (2016). GENETIC ARCHITECTURE OF DUSUNIC, MURUTIC AND PAITANIC ETHNIC GROUPS OF SABAH, MALAYSIA AS REVEALED BY HIGH DENSITY GENOTYPING ARRAYS (PDF). Doctor of Philosophy Degree, Biotechnology Research Institute (Thesis). pp. 1–24. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 November 2025 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Institutional Repository.
• Abdullah, Mohd Amli; Yahya, Wan Kalthom; Ramli, Nazirah; Mohamed, Siti Rosiah; Ahmad, Badli Esham (29 July 2016). Regional Conference on Science, Technology and Social Sciences (RCSTSS 2014): Business and Social Sciences. Springer. ISBN 978-981-10-1458-1.
• King, Victor T.; Ibrahim, Zawawi; Hassan, Noor Hasharina (12 August 2016). Borneo Studies in History, Society and Culture. Springer. ISBN 978-981-10-0672-2.
• Hakim Mohad, Abd; Mohd Mokhtar, Ros Aiza (2017). "Agama dan Budaya Berpisah Tiada: Tinjauan terhadap Masyarakat Murut Tahol di Sabah" [The Indivisible Nature of Religion and Culture: A Review on the Murut Tahol Community in Sabah]. International Journal of the Malay World and Civilisation (in Malay). 5 (2): 3–12. Archived from the original on 19 February 2026 – via Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia.
• Kok On, Low; Pugh-Kitingan, Jacqueline; Ibrahim, Ismail (2017). "Change and Continuity in Traditional Timugon Rice Cultivation Beliefs and Practices". Suvannabhumi. 9 (2): 91–122. Archived from the original on 22 February 2026 – via Korea Journal Central.
• Rough Guides (5 October 2017). The Rough Guide to Southeast Asia On A Budget (Travel Guide eBook). Rough Guides UK. ISBN 978-0-241-33008-1.
• Nassir, Normadiah; Kok On, Low; Ibrahim, Ismail; Hussin, Supyan (2017). "Unsur Kepercayaan dan Kearifan Tempatan dalam Memorat Perubatan Tradisional Etnik Murut Tahol di Sabah" [Elements of Local Beliefs and Wisdom in the Traditional Healing Memorates of the Tahol Murut of Sabah]. The Asian Journal of Humanities (KEMANUSIAAN) (in Malay). 24 (2): 59–88. doi:10.21315/kajh2017.24.2.3. Archived from the original on 27 February 2026 – via USM Journal Management System. Text is licensed by the Asian Journal of Humanities under CC BY 4.0
• Morrison, Alastair (31 May 2018). Fair Land Sarawak: Some Recollections of an Expatriate Officer. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-1880-9.
• Rudiatin, Endang (7 August 2018). Malayndonesia: Integrasi Ekonomi di Perbatasan Indonesia-Malaysia: Sebatik Kalimantan Utara-Tawau Sabah [Malayndonesia: Economic Integration on the Indonesia-Malaysia Border: Sebatik, North Kalimantan-Tawau, Sabah] (in Indonesian). Bening Era. ISBN 978-602-72045-1-5.
• Magi, Suhaimi (2018). TARIAN MAGUNATIP ETNIK NABAI DAN PALUAN: DARIPADA PERMAINAN TRADISIONAL KE PERSEMBAHAN PENTAS KINI [NABAI AND PALUAN ETHNIC MAGUNATIP DANCE: FROM TRADITIONAL GAMES TO PRESENT STAGE PERFORMANCES] (PDF). Degree of Master of Arts, Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Heritage (Thesis) (in Malay). pp. 1–130. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2026 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Repository.
• Ibrahim, Ismail (10 May 2019). Murut: Design and Design Heritage. Universiti Malaysia Sabah Press. ISBN 978-967-2166-43-6.
• Bumburing, Rozietha; Rinduan, Ridley (2019). Busana hias etnik Murut: Tinawak dan Sapulu [Murut ethnic ornamental clothing: Tinawak and Sapulu] (in Malay). Sabah State Cultural Board. ISBN 978-967-16032-6-0.
• Buntung, Mastinah; Anuar Ramli, Mohd (2019). "Analisis Gender dalam Amalan Sogit Masyarakat Murut Tahol di daerah Nabawan, Sabah" [Gender Analysis in Sogit Practice among Murut Tahol Community in the District of Nabawan, Sabah]. Online Journal of Research in Islamic Studies (in Malay). 6 (3): 37–48. Archived from the original on 19 February 2026 – via University of Malaya.
• King, Victor T.; Druce, Stephen C. (29 October 2020). Origins, History and Social Structure in Brunei Darussalam. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-21480-2.
• Min Min, Toh (2020). LANSARAN ETNIK MURUT TAHOL: ANALISIS ASPEK PERMAINAN TRADISIONAL, PERSEMBAHAN RITUAL DAN SEKULAR [LANSARAN OF TAHOL MURUT ETHNIC: ANALYSIS OF ASPECTS OF TRADITIONAL GAMES, RITUAL AND SECULAR PERFORMANCES] (PDF). Degree of Master of Literature, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities (Thesis) (in Malay). pp. 1–6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2026 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Repository.
• Buntung, Mastinah; Anuar Ramli, Mohd; Azizul Marinsah, Syamsul (2020). "KONTRADIKSI ANTARA ADAT DAN SYARIAT DALAM AMALAN PERKAHWINAN MASYARAKAT MURUT TAHOL DI DAERAH NABAWAN, SABAH" [Contradiction of Custom and Islamic Law in the Practice of Marriage in Murut Tahol Community, Nabawan District Sabah]. MANU (in Malay). 31 (2): 37–48. doi:10.51200/manu.v31i2.2640. eISSN 2590-4086. Archived from the original on 23 February 2026 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Journal Management System.
• Adira Aratin, Nur; de Silva, Maureen (2020). "PENENTANGAN MASYARAKAT MURUT DALAM PERANG RUNDUM: FAKTOR DAN BENTUK PENENTANGAN (1909-1915)" [MURUT COMMUNITY RESISTANCE DURING RUNDUM WAR: FACTORS AND FORMS OF RESISTANCE (1909-1915)]. Journal of Borneo Social Transformation Studies (JOBSTS) (in Malay). 6 (1): 238–257. doi:10.51200/jobsts.v6i1.2807 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Journal Management System.
• Hasbollah Hajimin, Mohd Nur Hidayat; Abang Muis, Abang Mohd Razif; Mokhtar, Saifulazry; Wani Othman, Irma; Esa, Mohd Sohaimi; Ationg, Romzi; Abdul Hamid, Jais (2021). "GERAKAN DAKWAH DAN IMPAKNYA TERHADAP PENINGKATAN KOMPOSISI MUSLIM DI SABAH" [DAKWAH MOVEMENT AND ITS IMPACT ON THE INCREASE OF MUSLIM COMPOSITION IN SABAH]. International Journal of Law, Government and Communication (IJLGC) (in Malay). 6 (23): 125–139. doi:10.35631/IJLGC.623009. Archived from the original on 7 March 2026 – via Global Academic Excellence (GAE). Text is licensed by the International Journal of Law, Government and Communication (IJLGC) under CC BY 4.0
• Gin, Ooi Keat; King, Victor T. (29 July 2022). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Brunei. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-56864-6.
• Hj. Mahali, Saidatul Nornis; Mee Mee, Wong (2022). "BAHASA MURUT DI SABAH: SATU PAPARAN DINI" [THE SABAH MURUT LANGUAGE: A PRELIMINARY VIEW] (PDF). Jurnal Melayu (in Malay). 21 (1): 22–41. ISSN 1675-7513. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 May 2025 – via UKM Journal Article Repository.
• Kusuma, Pradiptajati; Cox, Murray P.; Barker, Graeme; Sudoyo, Herawati; Lansing, J. Stephen; Jacobs, Guy S. (2023). "Deep ancestry of Bornean hunter-gatherers supports long-term local ancestry dynamics" (PDF). Cell Press. 42 (11 (113346)): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113346. PMC 7618103. PMID 37917587. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 January 2026.
• Maliki, Saumon (2023). "Masakan Tradisional Kaum Murut" [Traditional Murut Cuisine]. Malaysian Vocational Diploma for Culinary Arts Programme at Keningau Vocational College (KVC). Archived from the original on 22 February 2026 – via Scribd.
• Rosly, Rozaliza (2023). "PENTAKRIFAN "RITUAL AMPARAWAK" DI KALANGAN MASYARAKAT MURUT TAHOL DI SABAH: SOROTAN LITERATUR" [DEFINITION OF “AMPARAWAK RITUALS” AMONG THE MURUT TAHOL COMMUNITY IN SABAH: A HIGHLIGHT]. Journal of Borneo Social Transformation Studies (JOBSTS) (in Malay). 9 (1): 90–104. doi:10.51200/jobsts.v9i1.4761. ISSN 2462-2095. Archived from the original on 23 June 2025 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Journal Management System.
• Nasution, Syamruddin (28 October 2023). Sejarah Islam Asia Tenggara [History of Islam in Southeast Asia] (in Indonesian). PT. RajaGrafindo Persada - Rajawali Pers. ISBN 978-623-372-786-0.
• Mangenda, Yoris (18 November 2024). Dayak Architectural Heritage: The Diversity of Architecture and Historical Traces. Realrich Architecture Workshop. ISBN 978-623-89171-1-2.
• Hj. Mahali, Saidatul Nornis (2024). "RAGAM-RAGAM BAHASA MURUT DI SABAH" [VARIETIES OF MURUT LANGUAGES IN SABAH] (PDF). Jurnal Melayu (in Malay). 3: 40–59. ISSN 1675-7513 – via Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Journal Article Repository.
• Hastuti, Puji (2024). "Frontier Strategies of Dayak Agabag's Elite for Cultural Rights in Ulu Sembakung, North Borneo". Jurnal HAM. 15 (1): 1–18. doi:10.30641/ham.2024.15.1-18. Archived from the original on 28 January 2026 – via ResearchGate. Text is licensed by Jurnal HAM under CC BY NC 4.0
• Julius, Eddie A.; Wong Tze-Ken, Danny (2024). "TRANSFORMASI SISTEM ADAT DAN KEHAKIMAN MURUT SEWAKTU PEMERINTAHAN SYARIKAT BORNEO UTARA BRITISH" [Transformation of the Murut Customary and Judicial System during the Governance of the British North Borneo Company]. Journal of the Department of History (in Malay). 33 (2): 81–103. doi:10.22452/sejarah.vol33no2.5. eISSN 2756-8253. Archived from the original on 22 February 2026 – via University of Malaya E-Journal.
• Saunders, David R. (15 December 2024). Chasing Archipelagic Dreams: The Expansion of Foreign Influence in Sabah Amid the End of Empire, 1945–1965. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-7776-9.
• Adelaar, Alexander; Schapper, Antoinette (2024). The Oxford Guide to the Malayo-Polynesian Languages of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-880735-3.
• Julius, Eddie A.; Wong Tze-Ken, Danny (2025). "Migrasi Dalam Komuniti Murut Dan Kemasukan Peribumi Borneo Ke Borneo Utara (Sabah) Ketika Era Kolonial" [Migration in the Murut Community and the Influx of Borneo’s Indigenous People to North Borneo (Sabah) During the Colonial Era]. Jurnal Borneo Arkhailogia (Heritage, Archaeology and History) (in Malay). 10 (1): 57–82. doi:10.51200/jba.v10i1.7192. eISSN 2600-8726 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Journal Management System.
• Nilan, Pam; Maunati, Yekti (23 April 2025). Decolonising Social Science Research in Southeast Asia: New Ways of Knowing. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-981--964624-1.
• Saiwat, Shelly Ann; Kindoyop, Salbiah (2025). "TRANSFORMASI MOTIF BUSANA PINONGKOLOH MASYARAKAT MURUT TAHOL DI SABAH" [TRANSFORMATION OF PINONGKOLOH COSTUME MOTIFS AMONG THE TAHOL MURUT COMMUNITY IN SABAH]. Gendang Alam (in Malay). 15 (2): 185–195. doi:10.51200/ga.v15i2.7155. Archived from the original on 30 January 2026 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Journal Management System.
• Ann Saiwat, Shelly; Kindoyop, Salbiah (2025). "TRANSFORMASI MANIK PADA BUSANA PINONGKOLOH MASYARAKAT MURUT TAHOL DI SABAH" [TRANSFORMATION OF PINONGKOLOH COSTUME BEADS AMONG THE MURUT TAHOL COMMUNITY IN SABAH]. Jurnal Kinabalu. 31 (1): 169–177. doi:10.51200/jurnalkinabalu.v31i1.7131. eISSN 2600-867X. Archived from the original on 30 January 2026 – via Universiti Malaysia Sabah Journal Management System.
• Abdullah Sofian, Serianie; Haji Mahadi, Mardina (2025). "Peralihan Bahasa Murut di Negara Brunei Darussalam" [Language Shift among the Murut Community in Brunei Darussalam]. International Journal of Linguistics and Indigenous Culture (in Malay). 3 (3): 239–262. doi:10.36312/z7kjxw56 – via LITPAM Journal Center, National Library of Indonesia. Text is licensed by the International Journal of Linguistics and Indigenous Culture under CC BY-SA 4.0

• Baboneau, N. B.; Woolley, G. C. (1922). "A Murut Vocabulary" (PDF). Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society: 343–375. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 January 2026 – via Internet Archive.
• Woolley, G. C. (1928). "Murut Folktales, I". Folklore. 39 (3). Taylor & Francis: 253–271. JSTOR 1256188.
• Keith, H. G. (1936). "SOME ULUN-NO-BOKAN (MURUT) WORDS FROM NORTH BORNEO". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 14 (3): 314–322. JSTOR 41559872.
• Needham, Rodney (1955). "A Note on some Murut Kinship Terms". Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 28 (1). Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society: 159–161. JSTOR 41503174.
• Harrisson, Tom (1967). "Ethnological Notes on the Muruts of the Sapulut River, Sabah". Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. 40 (1 (211)). Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society: 111–129. JSTOR 41491909.
• Woolley, G. C. (1974). The Timoguns: A Murut Tribe of the Interior, North Borneo. Chung Ching Jit Pao Limited.
• Brewis, Kielo A. (1988). Learn to speak Timogun Murut: a series of twenty-five language learning lessons. Sabah Museum and State Archives Department. ISBN 978-983-99532-3-7.
• Doi, Akira (2003). Learn to speak Bookan Murut: a series of twenty-five language learning lessons. Department of Sabah Museum.
• Lobel, Jason William (31 January 2016). North Borneo Sourcebook: Vocabularies and Functors. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-5782-0.

Media related to Murut people at Wikimedia Commons