Energy in Africa

Energy use and development in Africa varies widely across the continent, with some African countries exporting energy to neighbors or the global market, while others lack even basic infrastructures or systems to acquire energy.^[1] The World Bank has declared 32 of the 48 nations on the continent to be in an energy crisis.^[1] Energy development has not kept pace with rising demand in developing regions, placing a large strain on the continent's existing resources over the first decade of the new century.^[2] From 2001 to 2005, GDP for over half of the countries in Sub Saharan Africa rose by over 4.5% annually, while generation capacity grew at a rate of 1.2%.^[2]

The International Energy Agency report that between 2020 and 2022, electricity usage in Africa increased by over 100%. Much of this increase being provided for by gas fired power stations.

The IEA report that in 2022 74.9% of all electricity produced in Africa was generated by burning natural gas, coal and oil.

Energy consumption on the African continent is characterised by very low per-capita energy use compared with the global average, reflecting limited access to modern energy services in many of its 54 countries. In 2023 total final consumption (TFC) in Africa (the energy delivered via different energy carriers for end-uses such as gasoline for driving a petrol car, electricity for lighting and other appliances, or natural gas for cooking) stood at 5.5% of the global total final energy consumption. Per-capita final energy consumption is more than three times smaller than the global average.^[3]

As of 2023, final energy consumption was dominated by biofuels and waste (largely biomass combustion of wood, animal waste and traditional charcoal), which represented 43% of the total (mostly used for cooking and heating in the residential sector).^[4] Oil products hold second place with 33%, mostly fuels used in the transportation sector. Electricity represented only 11% as nearly half of the population (about 600 million people on the continent) still do not have access to electricity.^[5]

Additional data

Final energy consumption in Africa has increased substantially, nearly doubling in just over two decades between 2000 and 2023. However, energy consumption growth has largely risen from a low point and in line with population growth and per capita it has remained largely flat: up just 3% in 2023 compared to 2000, while global consumption per capita increased by 10% over the same period.^[3]

The composition of energy use has shifted only gradually. The share of biofuels and waste declined from around 50% of total final consumption in 2000 to 43% in 2023, reflecting a slow reduction in reliance on traditional biomass. Oil products increased slightly as a share of total consumption (from about 29% to 33%). Natural gas more than tripled in absolute terms and increased its share from roughly 5% to 9%, albeit from a low base. Electricity consumption more than doubled in absolute terms but its share rose only modestly, from around 10% to 11% of total final consumption. Coal’s share declined over the period, remaining a small component of final energy use.^[3]

In the 1970s the electrical industry in Africa was facing an economic paradox where raising prices would prohibit access to their services, but the roll out of additional infrastructure to drive prices down and increase access needed additional capital that the industry could not afford.^[6] Overall rates of access to electricity in Africa have held constant from the 1980s to the early 2000s, while the rest of the world saw electrical grid distribution increase by 20%.^[7] Sub-Saharan Africa was the only region in the world where per-capita access rates are falling during that period.^[8]

Access to electricity has remained a major challenge across many African countries today. Some Northern African countries such as Algeria, Morocco and Egypt, as well as other African countries like Ghana, Gabon, and South Africa have made progress in tackling the issue. However, progress has remained limited across Central Africa and the Sahel regions.^[9][5] Sub-Saharan Africa has an average electrification rate of 53% as of 2023, up from 33% in 2010, but still well below the global average of 92% in 2023 and the number of people without access to electricity has remained almost unchanged (from 566 million in 2010 to 565 million in 2023).^[10]

In 2023, 35 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa gained electricity access, but with a population growth of 30 million, the net reduction in the access gap was only 5 million (from 570 million to 565 million). This region now accounts for 85% of the global population without electricity, up from 50% in 2010. Eighteen of the 20 countries with the largest electricity access deficits in 2023 were in Sub-Saharan Africa. As in the previous year, the deficits in Nigeria (86.6 million), the Democratic Republic of Congo (79.6 million), and Ethiopia (56.4 million) accounted for more than one-third of the globe’s population without electricity. The access gap is increasingly concentrated in countries and regions suffering from conflict and violence. These conditions impede economic progress, limit government capacity for implementing grid expansion, and constrain consumer demand.^[11]

Rural areas continue to face the most severe access challenges. Rural population growth in Sub-Saharan Africa has outpaced electrification, leaving 451.1 million people in rural areas without electricity in 2023, up from 376 million in 2010.^[11] The percentage of residences with access to electricity in Sub-Saharan Africa is the lowest in the world.^[12] In some remote regions, fewer than one in every 20 households has electricity.^[13] Even in areas covered by the electrical grid, power is often unreliable: only about half of areas with electricity access in Sub-Saharan Africa show signs of consistent electricity availability during peak evening hours.^[14]

The UN’s most recent assessment of progress towards Sustainable Development Goal 7, which aims to deliver ‘affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all’ by 2030, concludes that progress towards universal electricity access by 2030 remains off track, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. At current rates of progress, it estimates that 645 million people around the world will still lack electricity access in 2030, the majority in Sub-Saharan Africa.^[11]

Expansion costs are typically higher in Sub-Saharan Africa, as dispersed populations and weak transmission networks increase the per-connection cost of grid investment.^[14] Utilities in Sub-Saharan Africa face constraints that limit their ability to raise financing, invest in infrastructure, improve service and generate adequate revenue.^[11]

While renewable energy deployment in many African countries is expanding, limited investment, weak grid infrastructure and financing constraints mean the global renewable energy boom has not yet translated into rapid, widespread improvements in electricity access across much of the continent.^[15] While Africa accounts for around 20% of the world’s population it attracts less than 2% of its spending on clean energy.^[16]

Electrification efforts increasingly rely on a mix of grid extension, mini-grids, and off-grid solutions tailored to local conditions. Mini-grids and stand-alone off-grid solar systems have become increasingly important due to their cost-effectiveness in remote and sparsely populated areas. In Sub-Saharan Africa, decentralised systems have accounted for more than half of new electricity connections in recent years (55% over 2020–2022).^[17]

The IEA projects that universal access to electricity could be near by 2035 if global efforts were stepped up to rates equivalent to the best achieved so far. In its ACCESS scenario, the IEA estimates that sub-Saharan Africa would need to see 70 million people gain access each year, almost a fourfold increase compared to today. Several Sub-Saharan African countries, including Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar and Ghana, have recently strengthened their electricity access policy frameworks, adopting new targets through Energy Compacts agreed at the African Energy Summit in Dar es Salaam in 2025.^[14]

Clean cooking access remains one of the most persistent energy challenges in Africa. Clean cooking solutions generally refer to fuels and technologies that substantially reduce household air pollution compared with traditional use of firewood, charcoal, dung and crop residues. They include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, electricity and biogas. Despite global progress, Sub-Saharan Africa remains the only region where the absolute number of people without access is still growing, and in 2023 only 21% of Sub-Saharan African's had access to clean cooking fuels and technologies, "leaving over 900 million people relying on polluting cooking fuels and technologies”.^[17]:35 Across Africa, firewood, charcoal and residues from agriculture amount to over 53% of total final energy consumption in the entire continent, and in households biomass still makes up the largest share at 85%.^[4]

The health and social impacts of reliance on polluting fuels are severe. In 2021, “exposure to household air pollution was estimated to contribute to 2.9 million premature deaths annually, including over 329,000 deaths of children under the age of five”.^[17]:46 Biomass use is associated with around 500,000 cases of premature deaths in women and children annually^[4] This lack of access puts an especially large strain on women and girls.^[17]:34 Wealth disparities are pronounced, for example, in Kenya, poorer parts of the population show less than 1% access while the wealthiest reach 84%.^[17]:46

Progress has been constrained by demographic and structural factors. According to the World Bank, “overall progress continues to be outpaced by rapid population growth”, while “population growth, weak policy frameworks, inadequate infrastructure, lagging innovation, and limited affordability of clean cooking solutions… continue to hinder progress”.^[17]:35 Although policy momentum has increased, with 50 new clean cooking policies established since early 2024 in Sub-Saharan Africa^[14]:289, “less than 20% of clean cooking plans are backed by clear financing schemes”.^[17]:121

Under current trajectories it is expected that by the end of the decade, nearly as many people as today will still lack access, and over 75% of them (nearly 1 billion people) will likely still depend on polluting fuels and technologies in 2030.^[17]:121 Even under accelerated pathways, universal access in Sub-Saharan Africa is projected only “just before 2040.^[14]:289

Access to modern energy for transport in Africa is closely linked to oil product consumption. Africa accounts for around 4.5% of global oil product consumption, reflecting comparatively low motorisation rates and transport fuel use per capita.^[18]

Motorisation levels remain significantly below global averages. In 2017, the average motorisation rate in Africa was 73 vehicles per 1,000 people, compared to a global average of 300 and 180 in developing countries.^[19] Ownership is concentrated in a small number of relatively higher-income economies, led by Libya (490 vehicles per 1,000 people), followed by South Africa (176 vehicles per 1,000 people).^[20]

High fuel costs and income constraints have limited faster growth in private vehicle ownership. Many African countries are net oil importers and therefore exposed to global fuel price volatility, which increases import bills and affects transport affordability.^[14]

Electric mobility remains at an early stage but is expanding. In 2024, electric car sales across Africa doubled from 2023 to reach 11,000 units, with several countries such as Morocco and Egypt at over 2,000 units. However the share in total car sales remained low, at less than 1%.^[21]

Policy measures are beginning to reshape transport energy access. In 2024, Ethiopia announced a ban on the import of new internal combustion engine vehicles, becoming the first country to prohibit gasoline and diesel car imports in order to reduce fuel import costs and promote electric vehicles.^[22][23] The policy combines restrictions on Internal Combustion Engine imports with preferential treatment for EVs.  This has resulted in a strong increase in EV deployment reaching 100,000 electric vehicles.^[23][21] Despite these developments, oil products continue to dominate transport energy use in Africa, and the pace of electrification remains constrained by limited charging infrastructure, electricity reliability challenges and high upfront EV costs relative to average incomes.^[14]

The African continent features many sustainable energy resources,^[25] of which only a small percentage have been harnessed. 5–7% of the continent's hydroelectric potential has been tapped, and only 0.6% of its geothermal.^[26] The publication Energy Economics estimates that replacing South African coal power with hydroelectric imported from the Democratic Republic of the Congo could save 40 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually.^[27] 2011 estimates place African geothermal capacity at 14,000 MW, of which only 60 MW has been tapped.^[27] The African Energy Policy Research Network calculates that biomass from agricultural waste alone could meet the present electrical needs of 16 south eastern countries with bagasse-based cogeneration.^[27] The sugar industry in Mauritius already provides 25% of the country's energy from byproduct cogeneration, with the potential for up to 13 times that amount with a widespread rollout cogeneration technology and process optimization.^[26]

According to Stephen Karekezi, Director of African Energy Policy Research Network and co-worker Waeni Kithyoma, Africa is third largest in crude oil reserves (behind the Middle East and Latin America), third largest in natural gas resources (behind the Middle East and Europe), second greatest for uranium (behind Australia), and is plentiful in hydro energy potentials and other renewable energy, such as bio-energy and solar energy.^[28] Professor Iwayemi states that there are conventional energy sources in Africa: hydroelectric and wood fuels, coal lignite, crude oil, natural gas and nuclear fuels, and there are unconventional energy sources, such as solar, geothermal, biomass, oil and tar sands, wind energy and tidal energy from the influence of the sea.^[29]

In addition, South Africa alone possesses the sixth largest coal reserve on the planet, after China, the US, India, Russia and Australia.^[30] Specific renewable resources in South Africa include solar, wind, hydropower, wave energy, and bio-energy.^[31][32]

North Africa is dominant in oil and in gas, for Libya obtains approximately 50% of the oil reserves available in Africa.^[29] Libya designated US$5 billion to assert programs and regulations that will reduce carbon emissions.^[33] Resources, such as oil and gas, are also prevalent in Algeria, in addition to natural gas.^[29] According to the Renewable Energy Sector in N. Africa, solar capacity is also extremely relevant in North Africa.^[34] The total power installed in North Africa region was roughly 61.6 GW in 2012. This is mostly made up of hydro accounting for nearly 10%.

Southern Africa has 91 percent of all of Africa's coal reserves and 70% of the nuclear/uranium resources in Africa, according to Professor Iwayemi.^[29] Southern Africa follows Central Africa closely in hydro resources; hydroelectric potential can particularly be found in the Congo DRC, Mozambique, Zambia, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Nigeria.^[29] Mozambique in particular has joined an international initiative to develop an energy action plan, to contribute to Sustainable Energy for All.^[33]

In accordance with The Africa Society, USAID's Living in the Finite Environment program has helped form 15 protected areas in Southern Africa, encompassing nearly 40,000 community members, known as conservancies in Namibia.^[35]

The country of South Africa alone possesses the sixth largest coal reserves on the planet, after China, the US, India, Russia and Australia. Specific renewable resources in South Africa include solar, wind, hydro power, wave energy, and bio-energy.

As of 2017, Zambia is in a massive power crisis that began in June. In Lusaka the eight-hour blackouts cause families to cook on a simple charcoal fire. The reason for this is poor rainfall, causing less hydroelectric output.

Despite recent improvements and the sub-Saharan African off-grid solar industry's rapid expansion over the past ten years, some 600 million people in the region still lack access to power.^[36][37]

The Africa Society portrays that promotion of sustainable use of natural resources is occurring in Kenya and in Uganda; Kenya and Uganda are “improving community-based wildlife management, strengthening forestry and environmental management, and enhancing integrated coastal zone management…[this] reduces conflicts between communities and protected areas by promoting access rights, revenue sharing…,” etc.^[35] Kenya also organized an instrumental energy plan to support development and economic growth.^[33]

In Tanzania, the goal is to conserve biodiversity.^[35] “The USAID supports local actions in the Pangani, Bagamoyo, and Mkuranga districts that promote sustainable coastal and marine resources management through co-management for near-shore fishery areas, small-scale enterprise development, marine culture, and coastal tourism.”^[35] There is also an essential push for geothermal power in East Africa, given the arid climate.^[33]

Norway also supports the replacement of kerosene lamps with alternatives facilitated from solar power in Kenya, access to energy in Ethiopia's rural areas for job growth and a better standard of living, and Liberia's implementation of a climate plan.^[33]

Electricity access in Ghana increased 500% between 1991 and 2000, but per capita consumption actually fell over the same period, suggesting electricity usage was unaffordable. Ghana was also one of the primary countries to develop an energy action plan, in response to the initiative for Sustainable Energy for All.^[33]

Nigeria is currently a dumping ground for electronic products, which leach toxic metals and substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, antimony, and trioxide into water sources.^[35] When burned, carcinogenic dioxins and polyaromatic hydrocarbons are emitted and toxic chemicals like barium are transmitted into the soil.^[35] The 1989 Basel Convention established an international treaty designed to regulate hazardous waste from being dumped into the developing world.^[35]

In reflection of statements made in Prof. Iwayemi's essay, West Africa does have some coal reserves – approximately 10 percent of coal in Africa, particularly Nigeria.^[29] West Africa also exhibits some nuclear resources.^[29] In addition to coal reserves, Nigeria contains natural gas and oil resources.^[29]

“In Guinea, West Africa, the US is making significant input in the area of environmental protection.”^[35] These progressive steps will improve agricultural production technologies and exchange trade opportunities.^[35] “In Guinea 115,000 hectares of forests and tree plantations have been placed under sustainable management…USAID has assisted more than 37,000 farmers to improve agricultural production through sustainable management practices, and has helped establish over 2,800 new businesses.”^[35]

With a huge discrepancy between urban (70%) and rural (18%) areas, only 40% of people in Benin have access to electricity, leaving over five million without it. Currently, just 10% of homes use off-grid solar equipment.^[36][38]

Central Africa has abundant hydro-electric resources due to the multiple rivers that run through this region.^[29] The publication Energy Economics estimates that replacing South African coal power with hydroelectric imported from the Democratic Republic of the Congo could save 40 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions annually.^[27]

Africa is protecting forest resources.^[35] “USAID will contribute approximately $48 million to partnership through its successful Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)…goal is to improve forest governance, develop sustainable means of livelihood for 60 million people who live in the Basin, reduce the rate of forest degradation and loss of biodiversity through protected area management, improve logging policies, and achieve sustainable forest use by local inhabitants.”^[35]

The utilization of solar water heaters and biodiesel resources in South Africa within recent years reveals that renewable energy can significantly diminish poverty, for the implementation of clean energy systems has led to improvement in health, and general welfare of the people.^[39] The assimilation of these programs also generates employment, and develops empowerment of the people due to a localized level of energy operation.^[39]

"Since the turn of the century, the Shri Kshetra Dharmasthala Rural Development Project (SKDRDP) has extended micro-credits for renewable energy projects for a total of $3.2 million to poor farmers in the South Indian state of Karnataka. The credits paid for the installation of almost 20,000 biogas plants, solar home systems, improved cooking stoves and family-size pico-hydropower plants".^[40]

A major concern in Southern Africa is addressing the inequalities associated with the aftermath of the apartheid era.^[41] There are also several other factors or occurrences in Africa that lead to inequality, such as one's location of residence (urban vs. rural), one's access to food, water, and energy, and one's freedom to achieve well-being.^[42] The Human Development Report of 2013 suggests that the regions with the largest gender inequality index values are West and Central Africa; Liberia has the highest at an index of 143, followed by Central African Republic (142), Mauritania (139), Côte d'Ivoire (138), and Cameroon (137).^[43]

Energy can facilitate the development of schools, and help teachers gain access to a wide variety of teaching mechanisms, such as potentially computers.^[44] Energy can contribute to the allowance for freedom of education.^[45]

As a whole, foreign direct investment into Africa has been low. According to the Forum of Energy Ministers of Africa, Africa as a whole receives less than 2% of foreign direct investment across the world.^[46] A survey of 20 Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers prepared by countries across Africa found that most neglect to consider energy or individual energy access as an integral part of their development strategy.^[46] Trans-national initiatives play an important role in development for the entire region too. One example of international cooperation for energy development is the Chad-Cameroon pipeline.^[8]

Additionally, “The United States announced USD $2 billion in grants, loans and loan guarantees across U.S. government agencies and departments for capacity-building projects, policy and regulatory development, public-private partnerships, and loan guarantees to leverage private investment in clean energy technologies.”^[33]

Eskom and Duke Energy currently support an initiative to facilitate an electrical roadmap in Southern Africa. “The goal is to connect 500 million people to modern energy service by 2025".^[33]

Economic reasoning predicts increased efficiency and lower government overhead from a private contractor. Privatized Northern Electricity in Namibia implemented improved billing and reduced losses to lower the required energy tariff and lower energy prices. Private companies can also work closely with government to provide the social benefits of a state utility in the short term and the competition of a private market for the long term. South Africa commercialized the formerly public utility Eskom, but worked with them to continue grid expansion. The South African government helps fund new connections and subsidizes the first 100kWh per month for poor households, up from a previous 50kWh per month. By 2005 South Africa's electrification rate had increased to about 70% (from 30% in 1990).^[7]

Privatization can lead to price increases if the market is not otherwise profitable. An unregulated or lightly regulated market could tend towards proven profitable customers too, ignoring riskier opportunities to expand service to rural or poor customers. Extending the electrical grid becomes difficult because of the high upfront investments required to serve a low population density. According to the Forum of Energy Ministers of Africa, most rural customers can't even afford the install costs of the most basic single phase circuit with an electrical socket. Energy subsidies are one possible solution, but they can disproportionately effect demographics who already have access to electricity, missing the most poor.^[7][46]

Most development initiatives work at the individual project level, leading to fragmentation and inconsistency between projects that discourage long term investors. Institutional reform is vital to improving the operating efficiency of the electrical sector as a whole. The current hybrid public/private model lacks a clear leading organization with one clear vision of the system's future. Attempts to negotiate management contracts over utility hardware have generally failed, leaving the public utility still burdened with day-to-day hardware support as well as growth, planning, and development. Of 17 high-profile African energy management contracts, four were cancelled before they even reached full term, five were not renewed after only one cycle, and five more were dropped in later years. Only three remain in place today.^[2]

Smart utility management must meet increased investment in the middle to smartly allocate resources and develop a sustainable grid model. Of the current utilities, "On average, Africa's state-owned power utilities embody only 40% of good governance practices for such enterprise".^[2]

Nevertheless, federal support for energy is gaining momentum, especially in Southern Africa. South Africa's government has established a Joint Implementation Committee to progress the biodiesel industry.^[39] This committee encompasses a variety of sub-committees, like “South Renewable Energy Technologies for Poverty Alleviation South Africa: Solar Water Heaters and Biodiesel,” and the “African Petroleum Industry Association.^[39] Plans for the promotion of harvest to create bioethanol are underway, the South African Bureau of Standards is developing pricing models to enable economic growth.^[39]

“The World Bank and the International Finance Corporation will expand existing programs such as Lighting Africa, which develops off-grid lighting markets, to provide affordable lighting to 70 million low-income households by 2020, as well as undertake new initiatives with the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program, such as mapping of renewable energy resources”.^[33]

The Global Ministerial Environment Forum in Nairobi, Kenya was broadcast throughout Africa, and comprised a panel of energy experts who discussed the successes achieved in energy in Africa so far, lessons learned from implementations, and future projections for energy.^[33]

Moreover, the United Nations Development Program and UN Capital Development Fund recently initiated a global Clean Start program, which will enable millions of impoverished people both in Africa and in Asia to shift out of energy poverty by creating microfinance opportunities to encourage poorer individuals to purchase and utilize electricity.^[33] Twenty-five countries in Africa have joined this global task: Botswana, Burundi, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.^[33]

The World Bank operates a portfolio of 48 Sub-Saharan Africa energy projects with over US$3 billion in investment. Individual governments as well as private entities also contribute to overall energy projects. China and India have recently emerged as large players in the space, committing US$2 billion annually to new development projects. China focused specifically on 10 large hydropower projects, which combined are expected to produce another 6,000 MW of electrical energy. This is estimated to increase the hydroelectric capabilities of Sub-Saharan Africa by 30%. Another project currently undergoing feasibility exploration would install hydroelectric facilities on the Zambezi river, potentially generating 2,000–2,500 MW. Smaller scale projects also receive funding, such as efforts to distribute safe cookstoves and efficient kilns to lower the effects of biomass, initiatives to improve lighting efficiency, or smaller scale microgrid electrical distributions.^[1][2][47]

One characterizing feature of the electrical grid in Africa is its isolation.^[48] The formation of regional energy trading pools would help stabilize energy markets, but would require building out a transmission line infrastructure between countries.^[1] Installing those resources would be expected to require ~US$19 billion in investment.^[49] Regional energy trade would save an estimated US$5 billion annually in emergency generation costs, yielding a 22% rate of return even at 5% deflation.^[49] Energy economist Orvika Rosnes estimates that fair regional pooling in the least developed countries could actually generate money in less than one year, with a 168% annual return on investment.^[49]

Creating an effective and far-reaching modern electrical system in Africa will take significant investment. The African Development Bank has estimated that a universal access system for all 53 countries in Africa would cost US$547 billion total to implement by 2030, which averages to US$27 billion per year.^[48] Total investment has not come close to this mark, instead hovering until recently between $1–2 billion USD annually.^[1] Recent participation from China and India on the order of US$2 Billion annually brings the investment total up to ~US$4 billion.^[2] The power sector still faces a finance gap on the order of US$23 billion per year though, severely constraining its development options.^[2] Operating at 1/4 of the necessary budget to grow and expand, current networks must mark most funds for maintenance of aging existing systems.^[2]

Access to modern forms of Energy can impact socio-economic parameters like income, education, and life expectancy.^[46] Energy can act as a multiplier of the Millennium Development Goals through its ability to stimulate economic growth to generate employment, improve educational opportunities, and improve general health compared to existing energy sources.^[46] Research of past successful development suggests that energy, especially from transportation and industry, helped drive growth and modernization.^[6]

• Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger: Access to contemporary energy can help generate jobs, industrial activities, transportation, and modernized agriculture in Africa. Most African staple foods need processing, which can be aided and made more efficient by modern energy. Access to liquefied propane gas stoves in Senegal led to major domestic time savings and improved nutrition.^[50]
• Achieve universal primary education: Energy access improves the capabilities of schools and lowers the sustenance chore burden on children (female children in particular), allowing them more time to pursue education. Energy can also improve the quality of schools and build connections to surrounding communities.^[7]
• Promote gender equality and empower women: Household activities traditionally done by women could be made more efficient, leaving time for other means of self-development or productive economic input.
• Reduce child mortality: Modern energy can allow reliable access to better sources of water and lowers the indoor air pollution from existing biomaterial burning cooking stoves.
• Improved maternal health: Energy development lowers a mother's risk from indoor air pollution or water borne illness. Electricity also enables better illumination in health clinics for safer night deliveries. Poorly ventilated surroundings have been linked to chronic respiratory diseases like tuberculosis, bronchitis, and lung cancer.^[51]
• Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases: Electrification allows for sterilization, illumination, and refrigeration. Modern communication technologies can also aid information dissemination from public health officials.
• Ensure environmental sustainability: Transitioning to modern energy models will facilitate future sustainable resource development and slow present land resource degradation. Research has linked charcoal production to desertification and deforestation.^[46]

Adapted from table 2.1 in^[46][52] The Forum of Energy Ministers of Africa. Energy and the Millennium Development Goals in Africa. Rep. N.p.: ESMAP, n.d. Print, p. 10. Originally from “The Energy Challenge for Achieving the Millennium Development Goals.” UNEnergy, New York.

• Mains electricity by country
• Renewable energy in Africa