Tigers in India

Tigers in India constituted more than 75% of the global tiger population as of 2025.[1][2][3] India operates 58 tiger reserves. Tigers are the national animal of India.[4][5]

The Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)[6] is the species found across the country except in the Thar Desert, Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Kutch regions.[7] They have the largest body size among the Felidae family,[8]: 29  and are called Royal Bengal Tigers. Hides measuring up to 4 meters are recorded.[9] From nose to the tip of the tail, they can measure up to 3 meters and weigh up to 280 kilograms, with males heavier than females. Their life expectancy is about 15 years.[10] However, they can survive for up to 20 years in the wild.[11] They are solitary and territorial.

Tigers in India usually hunt chital (Axis axis), sambar (Cervus unicolor), barasingha (Cervus duvacelii), wild buffalo (Bubalis arnee) nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) and gaur (Bos gaurus) and other animals such as the wild pig (Sus scrofa) and even other predators such as leopards and bears.[10] Elephant calves (Elephas maximus) may be prey.[12]

The tiger is estimated to have been present in India since the Late Pleistocene, 12,000 to 16,500 years ago.[13][14][15] Tigers are found in 20 Indian states[16] occupying habitats including grasslands, mangrove swamps, tropical and sub-tropical forests,[10] as well as shola forest systems and from plains to mountains over 6000 feet.[17] The tiger is classified as Endangered on the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species.[18] Tigers are found across 12 regional tiger conservation landscapes (TCLs). India is home to 6 global priority TCLs, harboring more than 60% of the global genetic variation in the tiger species.[17]: 6 

India is one of the founding members of the intergovernmental platform of Tiger Range Countries – Global Tiger Forum[19]: 4  that is headquartered in New Delhi.[20]: 5  With a global share of 17% of the human population and 18% of the livestock population inhabiting 2.4% of the world's land, India has conserved the world's largest population of free range wild tigers, combatting a century of decline.[19]: 2  Initiatives in the form of amendments to the Wildlife Protection Act, created the "National Tiger Conservation Authority", delineated inviolate Core Areas in Tiger Reserves and incentivised voluntary relocation program, among many others are critical in protecting tiger populations, biodiversity, and ecosystem services of their inhabitat.[21] The Project Tiger Division under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is dedicated for conservation efforts.[22] In 2022, 54th tiger reserve in India was declared in Ranipur Wildlife Sanctuary, in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, its fourth tiger reserve.[23]

Tigers are present in multiple landscapes. Some landscapes have a rich and viable population with adequate habitat. However, some landscapes are prone to human interference, but retain the potential to support their tiger population. Other habitats with a once thriving tiger population later disappeared.[24] As of 2020, it is estimated that nearly 30% of the tiger population lives outside the Tiger Reserves.[25] India has achieved its target of doubling its population (TX2) ahead of its committed time-frame.[17] Tiger habitat increased by 30% between 2006 and 2018 to about 138,200 km2 (53,400 sq mi), mainly by controlling poaching, extending protected areas, fostering coexistence in multi-use areas, and offering economic incentives to local people.[26]

Common names

In India, it is known by different names in different languages[27][8]

Characteristics

The tiger is a large, heavy cat. Its coat is predominantly reddish-orange (pale yellow ochre to burnt sienna) and black stripes arranged irregularly, with smooth, short hair. The ventral parts including chin, throat, breast and belly are generally white with black stripes. In some tigers, brows and cheeks are white. Males have longer whiskers. Tigers in the plains tend to grow bigger versus those in hilly areas. Tigers measuring up to 12 feet were frequently recorded in the early 20th century.[12]: 375 

Sterndale recorded Lieutenant-Colonel Boileau hunting a 12 foot-ong tiger in 1861. Its hide allegedly measured 13 feet 5 inches. He mentioned Colonel Ramsay killing another 12 foot-long tiger.[28] Many tigers over 10 feet were killed during British rule.[29] Reduction of the gene-pool due to excessive hunting is a likely cause of smaller size of present-day tigers.

Tigers are good swimmers. They can endure thirst. Sanderson recorded two wounded tigers caught in a net during hot weather who survived without water for 10 days.[12]: 379  Tigers cannot climb but claw markings on tree bark can be found up to a height of 10 feet.[12]: 380  Tigers are cannibals and scavengers.[12]: 381  Enthusiastic 19th-century tiger-hunter Alexander Angus Airlie Kinloch observed:

It is rarely [sic] that tigers become man-eaters, probably on account of there being such abundance of game and cattle for them. Unless provoked, the tiger will rarely attack a man, but does his best to get away quickly.[30]

Sir Samuel Baker claimed that it was rare for a tiger to attack a human when disturbed. He stated:

The truth is that the tiger seldom attacks to actually kill, unless it is driven, or wounded in a hunt. It will frequently charge with a short roar if suddenly disturbed, but it does not intend to charge home, and a shout from a native will be sufficient to turn it aside; it will then dash forward and disappear, probably as glad to lose sight of the man as he is at his escape from danger.[12]: 380 

Culture

The fifth parva of the epic poem Mahābhārata, Udyoga Parva, includes one shloka that reads:

निर्वनो वध्यते व्याघ्रो निर्व्याघ्रं छिद्यते वनम् ।
तस्माद्व्याघ्रो वनं रक्षेद्वनं व्याघ्रं च पालयेत् ॥
nirvanō vadhyatē vyāghrō nirvyāghraṁ chidyatē vanam
tasmādvyāghrō vanaṁ rakṣēdvanaṁ vyāghraṁ ca pālayēt.[31]

which can be translated as

Do not cut down that forest with its tigers! Let not the tigers be driven from that forest! There can be no forest without tigers, and no tigers without a forest. The forest shelters the tigers and tigers guard the forest![32]

The tiger is admired and feared in Indian mythology. Goddess Shakti (Durga) rides on the tiger. Deities such as Dingu-Aneni (in North-East India),[33] Bonbibi (in West Bengal), Sabarimala Ayyappan (in Kerala), Huliraya (in Karnataka), Vaghdeo or Vaghoba (in Maharashtra)[34] and Chandraghanta[35]: 128  are associated and venerated with tiger. Puranas and folklore often mention tiger as vahana.[35] The Matsya Purana, while narrating Shiva's marriage with Sati, describes some of the Ganas, Shiva's attendants, resembling a tiger.[35]: 102  Harivamsa Purana often uses tiger qualities as adjectives. [35]: 139 

One Buddhist mythical tale suggested that Gautama Buddha in a past incarnation presented himself to a tigress as food as she was about to cannibalize her own cubs. This highlights compassion, the greatest virtue in Buddhist philosophy.[36] Taoism depicts tiger as a prominent temple element.[36]

Tiger images can be seen in mesolithic cave paintings found in Bhimbetka rock shelters.[35]: 75  Tiger featured on seals discovered in Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan shows its significance in Indus civilization and culture.[35]: 70  Earliest known pictorial depiction of Shiva wearing tiger hide are from Kushana Period.[35]: 167  Tigers hold cultural significance for many adivasis in India. Kharia, Bhaina, Savar (or Saur), Parja, and Kusro in Madhya Pradesh have totems of tiger.[35]: 24  Baigas consider tigers as their brother. Gonds are known for propitiating the tiger[35]: 26  which they see as a protector.[35]: 262  Korku worships Baghdeo (tiger god).[35]: 128  For the Murias, Chitan Deo (tiger god) is the god of good hunting. Bhagashwar (tiger god) is worshiped by the Bharias who believe that they will not be killed by a tiger. Koyas people consider Konarzu as their tiger god.[35]: 288  Tribal people who share their lands with tigers consider them to be sacred.[35]: 262  Traditionally, India has had a culture of conserving forests and wildlife.[25]

Tiger hunting by Islamic Invaders can be traced to Mughal cultural links with Mongol and Timurid ancestry which practiced cat hunting (lions, in their region) as a ritual "to formalise any kind of authority" and considered killing them as a good omen. Conversely, if the hunt was unsuccessful and the animal escaped, it would invite trouble.[37]

Naturalists identified that tigers were regarded by locals with awe that prevented its killing by locals, even when they had power.[12]: 386  European religious magazines and publications played a crucial role in introducing tigers to their audience.[38] English missionaries passing through jungles might encounter what they called "most savage and destructive of animals". Many were killed by tigers.[38]: 18  Then would ask their readers:

What do you think it was? Why, it was the body of the poor man who had been killed. ... It was, indeed, a horrid and painful sight, and one which I shall never forget. On looking at it my blood seems to curdle in my veins. ... Youthful reader, did you ever feel thankful that you were born in a country where you are not in danger of being killed and eaten by those cruel and blood thirsty beasts?[38]: 19 

Missionaries also noted:

In many places, the inhabitants appear to have resigned the dominion to the tigers, and take few precautions against them; regarding them as sacred.[38]: 77 

The popular myth that tigers are known to suck the blood of its prey was disproved in the early 20th century.[12]: 382 

History

Arthashastra, a political treatise authored by Kautilya more than two thousand years ago, mentions of vyaala vana (wildlife and tiger reserve), a protected area in the kingdom by Royal Command. King Ashoka of the Maurya Empire rejected hunting as a royal hobby.[34]

Humans and tigers have co-existed for millenia.[39] Tigers are elusive and avoid humans under normal circumstances, but charge only when wounded or in defence of cubs.[40]: 13  However, tigers have attacked humans and cattle, leading some villages to be abandoned.[40]: 12  Killing was not seen as a solution. Instead, tigers are revered.[41]

The British and some rulers viewed capturing/hunting tigers as a symbol of masculinity.[42] Tigers were seen as a "merciless blood sucking beast"[43] justifying kingship and empire. Hunting was a "Royal Privilege" for Mughals through which they demonstrate their authority over the natural world. This sport portrayed rulers as "heroes" capable of slaying the fiercest of beasts.[37] Following the prevalence of tiger hunting as a royal sport for centuries, the weapons employed by the British Raj and the popularity of hunting reduced the population. Hunting events were chronicled personal diaries, memoirs, official gazetteers and photographs.[44] The British enacted the Forest Act of 1878 which treated forest as hunting ground[44]for tiger that they labelled vermin.[43] Hunting was dangerous, leading it to be considered a manly feat. Photos of British royalty beside tiger carcasses during the late 19th and early 20th centuries symbolized British dominance.[45]

In the early 19th century, Bishop Heber wrote a poem that mentioned tigers:

Our task is done! On Ganga's Breast
The sun is sinking down to rest;
And moor'd beneath the tamarind bough,
Our bark has found its harbour now.
With furled sail and painted side,
Behold the tiny frigate ride.
Upon her deck, mid-charcoal gleams,
The Muslim's savoury supper steams,
While all apart, beneath the wood,
The Hindu cooks his simpler food.
Come walk with me the jungle through;
If yonder hunter told us true,
Far off, in the desert dank and rude, The Tiger holds his solitude;
Nor taught by secret charm to shun
The thunders of the english gun;
A dreadful guest but rarely seen,
Returns to scare the village green.[38]: 220-221 

A manager at Isaac A. Van Amburgh's menagerie mentions tigers:

... Glutting himself with the blood of his victims, he is a fit emblem of cruelty. ... though gutted with slaughter, (tiger) is not satisfied - but continues the carnage and seems to have its courage only inflamed by not finding resistance. He is the only animal whose spirit seems untamable: neither force nor constraint, violence or flattery can prevail in the least on his stubborn nature. The caresses of the keeper have no influence on his heart of iron; and time, instead of mollifying its disposition only serves to increase its fierceness and malignity. The tiger snaps at the hand that feeds it, as well as that by which it is chastised - every object seems considered only as its proper prey, which it devours with a look, although confined by bars and chains, still makes fruitless efforts as if to show its malignity when incapable of exerting its force. ... In short the beast may be said to be possessed of a devil, and no human power can instill into him the attributes of love and kindness.[46]

British rulers established postal services. To speed delivery, postmen would cross jungles then undisturbed by humans. Postmen were occasionally attacked. Such tigers were labeled Man-Eaters and hunted down by British officers.[47]: 238-239 

British rulers often came up with a book narrating the tales of their adventurous and "valor acts" of killing the tiger targeted at English audiences.[48] These books largely shaped the perception of Europeans who believed that killing the tiger was a favor to the native population. Lieutenant Colonel Frank Sheffield in his book How I Killed the Tiger wrote,

I had the satisfaction of knowing that I had rid the community of dangerous pest. The tiger in India is looked upon as a common enemy. All classes are in mortal dread of him.[48]: 10  ... There is, therefore, great rejoicing over the death of a tiger[48]: 11 

The British press highlighted these incidents gave rise to Big Game Hunting in India. Press opinions appeared in Daily Chronicle, United Service Gazette, The Field, Daily News, The Graphic, Land and Water, Examiner, Standard, Hampstead & Highgate Express, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph and The Navy and Army Illustrated among others.[48]: 108-114  When an adult tiger was killed, cubs were caught and sailed to Britain. Tigers were kept as pets by a few Englishmen.[47] Accounts appeared of tamed tigers.[47]: 228 [12]: 381 

In October 1857 a tigress escaped from Charles Jamrach. A 9-year-old boy playing on street was attacked and rescued. Edmonds from Birmingham later purchased this tigress exhibited it, advertising "The tiger that swallowed the child in Ratcliff Highway" This tigress escaped to kill a lion in Edmond's menagerie.[47]: 231-234 

Sanderson wrote "May the day be far distant when the tiger shall become practically extinct!"[49]

Tiger fights were held in Lucknow during the reign of the king of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah and a dozen tigers were sold for ten rupees each.[8]: 18  Tipu Sultan, the prince of Mysore state, was also associated with Tiger.[36]

In 1986, it was discovered that tigers were declining rapidly.[50]

Chennai was earlier known as Puliyur (Tiger Town). Mumbai (erstwhile Bombay) recorded tigers until 1929. Major cities along the river Yamuna like Delhi and Agra once had free roaming tigers in neighboring jungles.[34]

After Indian Independence, East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) had a population of tigers in the Sundarban Districts of East Bengal. The administration advertised its plentiful natural heritage as "a sportsman's paradise". It invited people to "take part in this exciting sport" by paying a "license fee".[51]

Habitat and ecology

Tigers live in only 13 countries - India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Malaysia, Russia, Thailand, and Vietnam.[52][53] Of these, only in 8 countries do tigers breed in the wild.[27] India, Nepal, and Russia are the only countries that have successfully increased their tiger population through conservation.[52] As of 2022, tigers were likely extinct in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Vietnam.[54]

Tigers can survive in habitats and climates encompassing high mountains, mangroves swamps, tall grasslands, dry and moist deciduous forests, as well as evergreen forests. Their coats provide camouflage.[55] Tigers prefer a large territory, determined by the availability of prey. It marks territory by urine, feces, rakes, scrapes, and vocalizing.[56] Tigers must compete for space with human expansion. They use landscape features such as dirt roads, trails, foot paths, riverbeds and nullahs which often lead to public sighting.[57]: 9 

Landscapes

India has five tiger-occupied complexes with unique geographical features.

Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains

With an average width of 60 km and stretching nearly 900 km from Yamuna and Sharda in the west to Valmiki Tiger Reserve in the east,[17]: 44  Shivalik and the Gangetic Plains landscape consists of three parallel geological zones - the Shivaliks, the bhabar tract and the terai plains ranging from Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh to Bihar.[17]: 10  Shivaliks are mountains with elevation up to 1500 m situated between the Himalayas and Indus-Gangetic-Brahmaputra-Irrawaddy plains. Streams from Shivalik enter underground in the bhabhar region to re-emerge in the terai zone, marked by annual flooding, high water table, shifting floodplains, vast swampy areas and abundant tall grass species.[17]: 42  India and Nepal share the forests in the terai region. Bhutan is a significant part of this zone. This makes trans-boundary co-operation important.

The density of tiger population (up to 15 tigers per 100 km2.)[17]: 50  there is attributed to the more than 15,000 km2 forested area with ample prey, such as:[17]: 45 

Central India and Eastern Ghats

The Central Indian and Eastern Ghats landscape includes all the area from semi-arid zone of Rajasthan, central Indian plateau of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra (along with part .of Sahyadris), and Odisha to parts of the Eastern Ghats Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and Odisha[17]: 10  A step-like geological formation can be seen at Chhota Nagpur Plateau (consisting of Hazaribagh, Ranchi and Koderma plateaus) along with the hills of Aravalli, Satpura and those in Eastern Ghats which range from 200 m to 1300 m. This terrain with patches of shallow, infertile soils is a natural deterrent for extensive cultivation, leaving many areas in this landscape forested. However, the traditional connection between ancient forests in Eastern Ghats with primitive forests of Central India along the Chhota Nagpur plateau is near extinction.[17]: 68 

A network of Protected Areas with nearly half of the total Tiger Reserves of India occupies this landscape. Peninsular forests transition into Thar desert through a semi-arid region located between northwestern Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Rajasthan. This habitat supports high biodiversity and tiger abundance. The landscape is undergoing massive degradation due to mining, infrastructure development and insurgency.[17]: 70 

Wildlife habitats there are the most fragmented in India. With four tiger populations of more than 100 members each (Kanha-Pench Block hosts more than 300) this landscape is home to endemic species such as Indian Wild Buffalo (Bubalus arnee) and Hard Ground Barasingha (Rucervus duvacelli branderi). Other common prey animals here are Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Chinkara (Gazella benetti), Chital (Axis axis), Chowsingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Mouse Deer (Moschiola indica), Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Sambar (Rusa unicolor), Wild Pig (Sus scrofa).[17]: 71 

The Western Ghats

Beginning from the River Tapi in North, running parallel to the Arabian Sea coast and stretching over 1600 km to end at Kanyakumari in South, the Western Ghats landscape ranges from Goa, Karnataka and Kerala to Tamil Nadu[17]: 10  Total forest cover is about 1,01,467 km2. and this landscape has 11 notified tiger reserves as of 2018. The highest peak at Anaimudi is 2,695 m from mean sea level. This global biodiversity hotspot with vegetation ranging from grasslands, montane stunted evergreen forests (shola), tropical wet evergreen forests, moist deciduous to dry deciduous forests and dry thorn forests, is home to about 5,800 species of flowering plants, 500 species of birds and 120 species of mammals with a large number of them being endemic to this region. Illegal Quarrying, Mining, Hydroelectric Power Projects, Deforestation for timber and agricultural output with rampant monoculture, hunting and encroachment are the major concerns that have resulted in irreversible habitat loss, disruption of habitat corridors, thereby interrupting the gene flow in tiger populations. It is estimated that in Karnataka, hosting India's second highest tiger population of 524 (SE 475 - 573) as per a 2018 assessment, about 12% of forests have been destroyed since 2000.[17]: 100-103 

North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains

North Bengal Dooars, Brahmaputra Flood Plains and North Eastern Hill ranges together constitutes North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains Landscape which includes parts of Northern West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland.[17]: 11  The fertile plains of Bengal Dooars are at the foothills of eastern Himalayas and have tropical moist forests that extend into the Brahmaputra Valley covering 750 km by 80 km, surrounded by hilly terrain. This region has numerous protected areas, reserved forests and wetlands along the Brahmaputra River. The northeastern hill region consists of eastern Himalayas extending from the Koshi Valley in Central Nepal to northwest Yunan in China and include northeast India along with the hill districts of West Bengal. Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills form the Meghalaya plateau while in the southeast, Mizoram includes part of Lushai hills while Tripura has a small chunk. The India-Myanmar border is along the Naga hills while Assam is home for the Barail Range, Karbi-Anglong hills and Cachar hills.[17]: 126 

With fertile land, many rivers and tributaries, the mountains, valleys and plains sit at an altitude ranging from 300 m to 6000 m. Tropical climate is predominant in valleys and deforestation for agriculture threaten the survival of many endemic species there. Apart from common tiger prey, tigers hunt Himalayan Goral (Naemorhedus goral), Himalayan Serow (Capricornis thar), Red Goral (Naemorhedus baileyi), Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Brow-Antlered Deer (Cervus eldi eldi), Leaf Deer (Muntiacus putaoensis), Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania), Ibex (Capra ibex), Great Tibetan Sheep (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) and Tibetan Wild Ass (Equus hemionus kiang). Tigers also hunt Badgers (Arctonyx collaris), Otters (Lutrogale perspicillata) and sometimes baby Elephants (Elephas maximus) and one-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis).[17]: 129-130 

Including two important Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs), nine tiger reserves there are part of the forest area of around 1,70,541 km2. The Tibet Autonomous region of China, Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar share borders with this landscape, making trans-boundary international cooperation essential.[17]: 128 

Sundarban

Sundarban consists of mangrove forests of southern part of West Bengal and extends into Bangladesh.[17]: 11  This wetland is a global priority Tiger Conservation Landscape Unit covering more than 10,000 km2. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1987. Designated as Sundarban Biosphere Reserve with 4,266 km2 area on the Indian side of the Sundarban (34%) is under the highest protection for wildlife in comparison with Sundarban in Bangladesh (66%), where a majority of the area allows harvesting forest produce.[17]: 138 

Aquatic systems of the mangrove habitat are productive, hosting 3.6 tigers per 100 km2,[17]: 141 , they have adapted successfully to a more saline and pneumatophore-filled existence.[17]: 139  This region has many man-eater tigers. Chital (Axis axis), Wild Pig, Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) and Lesser adjutant stork (Leptoptilos javanicus) are the major prey there. Other fauna such as Water monitor (Varanus salvator), young Saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) and possibly fish are preyed upon by local tigers.[17]: 138  With rivers serving as natural barriers, tigers swimming across the water channels up to 400 m wide have been recorded. An isolated habitat restricts the gene flow for tigers.[17]: 143 

Decline

Organized poaching due to demand for tiger parts and products is the major threat to the lives of existing tiger population.[16] However, other stressors also limit their numbers.

Deforestation leads to habitat loss, population fragmentation and depletion in prey numbers. Prey reductions increase human-tiger conflicts when tigers enter human populated areas to prey on cattle.[17] Tigers face zoonosis through interaction with domestic animals.[53]

Free ranging dogs near Protected Areas threaten both ungulates (which they hunt) and tigers, as a carrier for infectious diseases such as rabies, parvovirus, and distemper.[17] Large scale deforestation during the British empire provided timber for railways.[12]: 376 

Since 2012, records with standardized data of tiger deaths are maintained by the National Tiger Conservation Authority. From 2017 to 2021, 547 tiger deaths were documented. 393 were due to natural causes while 25 died due to poisoning, 9 were killed from snaring, 7 were eliminated by shooting, 22 were electrocuted and 33 were poached. 55 dead tigers were seized.[22]

Killing

Many tigers were killed in medieval and colonial India.[43] Shooting tigers was a "jolly-good sport".[58] Post-independence, India attracted global hobby-hunters who killed many tiger before the Indian government banned the practice in 1972.[43] The trophy-hunting industry in India at the time of ban was worth $4 million per year (equivalent of $433 million as of 2022).[59]

Shikar

The Mughal Empire saw a rise in tiger hunting as sport. Mughal Emperor would invite Mongol, Rajput, Turk and Afghan nobles for Shikar,[43] which was seen as a worthwhile opponent. Indians worshiped and feared them, so it was killed by the invaders as a mark of supremacy. Akbar preferred hunting tigers with bow and arrow while riding a horse or elephant while Jahangir, known to have killed 86 tigers, hunted on foot. Jahangirnama claimed Shikar of a total 28,532 animals and 13,964 birds by Jahangir beginning at age 12.[37] Mughals were known to maintain records of their shikar. Contests such as tiger vs horned buffaloes and tiger vs tiger were common during the era.[36]

Shikar employed Qamargah, a Mongol hunting tactic, in which men served as "beaters" encircling a huge area to flush and trap a tiger in a corral where the ruler would kill the tiger.[37] The hunter typically kept a part of tiger as a trophy or souvenir.[43]

Once Akbar took 4000 soldiers with him for Shikar. His courtiers, noblemen and his harem accompanied him. Infrastructure similar to the royal palace was created in the jungle. Sometimes, Shikar continued for months. Many paintings hailed the ruler. Cock-fights and duelling of pigeons and rams were practiced whenever the king felt bored. Falcons and Cheetahs were reared as pets to help make Shikar a success.[37]

The princely state of Hyderabad had many tigers. The dignitaries visiting the Nizam went on Shikar. At the jubilee celebration of Nizam, the prince gifted him 35 tiger pelts.[60]

Big-Game Hunting

Lydekker wrote, "Tiger is so intimately associated with the characteristic of India that it will always - and rightly - be regarded as the special emblem of that country."[12]: 376 

British saw the killing of tigers as an act of imperial dominance.[36] For colonial rulers and British officers, March, April and May made up tiger-hunting season as the grass dried out during summer, leaving tigers easier to spot.[8]: 27  Big-game hunts typically killed around 9 tigers on an average day.[36] They employed Shikaris (chief native trackers), beaters, with elephants and mahouts (elephant handlers).[40]: 4  The beaters were paid by the day, with a gratuity if a tiger is killed. An ordinary beater received three to four paise/day, with double that amount when there was a kill. They generally numbered fifty or sixty. Their leaders received double the above sums.[40]: 12 

The roots of tiger hunting may be understood via an incident in 1812 - when a party of British officers dining in a jungle near Madras was attacked by a tiger - one officer was killed. This created fear among the British. In another instance, in 1792, the son of Sir Hector Munro was killed by a tiger while he was hunting deer. Sir Hector sought revenge by officially authorizing the mass killing of tigers. Many officers were badly wounded or killed in the process. This led other officers to target the tiger.[61]

British rulers directed locals to clear forests for timber and agriculture. This increased the chances of man-tiger encounters, which was otherwise rare. Only forest dwellers came in contact with typically shy and solitary[12]: 378  tigers, with few attacks. Loss of habitat and reduced prey often pushed tigers into human settlements.

British Army Lieutenant William Rice in his journal published in 1857 mentions his "bag" consisted of 156 heads of "large game" including 98 tigers, one of which measured 11 feet 11 inches. He described them as "fearful ravages", "rapacious pests", "India infested with wild beasts" while equating their existence to "notorious evils" requiring "remedy" and aiming to "exterminate such brutes". Rice described tiger-shooting as the most exciting and glorious sport this world affords and wrote:[62]

I enjoyed splendid opportunities of observing the habits of these animals and ascertaining how they may best be killed.[62]

Poaching

Poachers kill tigers for body parts[53] including hide, teeth, and claws, which are used in Chinese traditional medicine and to display. A tigress scent-marks her vicinity with pungent fluid to announce her fertility to nearby males who compete for her. This leaves her vulnerable to poaching. Some brothels in these countries sell a sweet liquor steeped in tiger penis.[36] Poachers take advantage of man-tiger conflicts with the help of troubled locals.[43]

The earliest available records report high demand for tiger parts among the English. In 1886, tiger parts were traded in European markets with hides sold for nearly £6 (equivalent to 600 pound sterling in 2022) while a claw fetched about 5 shillings (equivalent to £25 in 2022). Tigers exceeding 11 feet were of higher value.[63]

In the 1950s, a tiger pelt was sold for $50 in India. Exports and fashion trends and demands led tiger hide rugs and coats to be sold for $10,000 in the U.S. and Europe during the 1960s.[59] Around 1,000 kg (2,200 pounds) of bones (estimated to be from 80 tigers) were seized in August 1993 in Delhi. The shipment was to be smuggled into China.[59]

By June 2004, none of the tigers in Sariska Tiger Reserve survived. However, government records claimed the presence of 18 tigers. This exposed corruption and neglect in the Rajasthan Forest Department. Funds meant for conservation were redirected by the state government. Arrest of poachers revealed that killing tigers in Sariska was easy as the guards' walkie-talkies were non-functional and the posts at wildlife areas normally manned by some 300 guards had been abandoned during monsoon season, providing access to the tiger reserve. Security personnel with bamboo sticks or obsolete British era Lee-Enfield rifles often encountered poachers carrying assault rifles and AK-47s.[59]

Tiger hide was most sought after for ceremonial clothing in China-controlled Tibet. However, this practice ended when the Dalai Lama denounced ceremonial clothing made of tiger and leopard hide.[64] In 2006, reports emerged showing Chinese police officers laughing and posing with people wearing tiger hide clothing. These were sold in China in violation of the UN trade ban. It was reported that China was considering lifting the ban on bones of farmed tigers, problematic since the bones could not be distinguished from those of wild tigers. The report showed Chinese businessmen purchasing tiger hide for home decor.[64]

Certain communities in India are known for making fake tiger claws using the bones of livestock due to their high demand and value.[22] A 2018 survey showed significant poaching at Amdarbad, Dampa, Dudhwa, Kanha, Melghat, Nagarhole, Palamau, Pench, Rajaji, Srisailam (NSTR) and Udanti-Sitanadi Tiger Reserves.[17]

Man-Eaters

On 2 November 2018, a tigress named Avni (officially known as T1, aged 6) with two 10-month-old cubs was killed near Borati village in the Yavatmal forests after more than a month-long search operation by Ashgar Ali Khan, son of India's most famous hunter, Nawab Shafath Ali Khan. She was accused of the death of 13 locals since June 2016.[65] This forest had no records of tigers and is a 170 km2 part of greater Vidarbha tiger landscape near the Tipeshwar wildlife sanctuary. Forensic investigation and DNA analysis linked Avni to 5 of the 13 people who died in an animal attack. All efforts to find the tigress with sniffer dogs, tthermal Imaging drones, elephant patrols and lures using cologne were unsuccessful due to the heavy growth of Lantana camara, which made it easy for her to hide.[66] Apparently, citizens appealed to President Ram Nath Kovind and Prime Minister Narendra Modi to protect the tigress campaigning on #LetAvniLive.[43] Post-mortem reports suggested she was killed by single bullet[65] and no attempts were made to tranquilize or capture her.[43] Forest department personnel were trained with tranquilising guns to capture her alive.[43]

Many standard protocols were violated:

The orders were issued in the name of the father but his son shot the tigress. (2) Such operations begin with sunrise and end at sunset. Tigress was killed in the Night. (3) At time of killing, wildlife veterinarian or any senior forest department official were not present with the hunting team. (4) In a statement, the team mentioned attempt to tranquilize the tigress failed and when she attacked, the person shot the tigress in self defense. How the "scheduled drug" used to sedate the tigress was handled in absence of a trained vet or wildlife expert raises doubts. (5) Spot panchanama suggests the possibility of manual piercing of dart into the hide. (6) Tigress body had no signs of resistance.[67]

Habitat Loss

Since 1925, tigers have lost almost 93% of their habitat.[53] Increased agriculture threatens habitats, triggering tiger-human conflict, resulting in human fatalities and retaliatory killing of tigers.[68]

Sunderban hosts abundant tigers and prey. The world's largest mangrove forest area is threatened by clearing to meet charcoal demand and for prawn fishing. Floating hotels and casinos are proposed, which would further disturb habitat .[36]A 2018 survey reported pressure at Achanakamar, Buxa, Dudhwa, Mukundara, Panna, Rajaji, Sanjay-Dubri, Sariska, and Udanti-Sitanadi due to livestock overgrazing.[17]

Population

Tiger populations can expand rapidly. Tigers can produce litters of typically 2-3 but up to 6 or 7 cubs after 3.5 months gestation.[55][12]: 378  If the litter is lost, another litter may arrive within five months.[56] Juvenile mortality is high; 50%+ of cubs do not reach reproductive age. Cubs remain with their mothers until age two. Male tigers become sexually active at age four. Tigers live up to 20 years.[56]

At the beginning of the 20th century, 80,000[69]-100,000 Bengal Tigers were believed to live in India.[44][59] Taxidermists Van Ingen & Van Ingen of Mysore recorded stuffing more than 25,000 tigers in their first 50 years.[44] More than 50,000 tigers were estimated in 1930.[58] Thereafter, estimates fluctuated: 40,000 (1947), initial tiger census: 1,827 (1972), Project Tiger: 3,500 (1990s), 2,967 (2018–19),[34] 3,682 (2025). The latter figure was some 75% of the world population.

Madhya Pradesh (785), Karnataka (563), Uttarakhand (560), Maharashtra (444), and Tamil Nadu (306) have the highest tiger populations. Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, with 115 tigers in the 625 km2 reserve, has the densest tiger population.[1]

From 2011–21 tiger deaths increased, from 88 in 2012 to 127 in 2021.[70]

Sign

Tiger presence can be confirmed using seven signs:[57]: 9 

  • Pugmark Trails
  • Scats (Old: dry with hair and bones visible, Fresh: dry but intact with shiny surface, Fresh: soft, moist, and smelly)
  • Scrapes
  • Scent marks (spray, rolling)
  • Rake marks on trunks
  • Actual sighting
  • Roaring

Census

After the Sariska incident in 2004–05, where all the tigers were poached, while official records showed tiger presence based on the pugmarks, a Tiger Task Force (TTF) was constituted that recommended changes in the population assessment method.[17] Multiple methodologies were used with a lack of uniform data collection interfere with comparisons. The forest department uses camera traps, GPS, pedometers and other equipment.[57]

The 2018–19 assessment (fourth cycle) done in 20 states covered 381,400 km2 area divided into 317,958 habitat plots. It is considered the world's largest wildlife survey ever undertaken.[17]: 28  65% of the population (1,923) was found inside reserves.[17]: 39  Tiger census occurs every four years.[2] The fifth cycle of population estimation, during 2022, initiated the digital M-STrIPES application.[19]: 2 

Population estimates in India since implementation of the new assessment methodology:s[71]

  • 2006 - 1,411
  • 2010 - 1,706
  • 2014 - 2,226
  • 2018 - 2,967
  • 2022 - 3682

M-STrIPES

Monitoring System for Tigers: Intensive Protection and Ecological Status (M-STrIPES) is a digital platform that facilitates patrolling, assesses ecological status and aids in mitigating human-wildlife conflict. The M-STrIPES program uses GPS, General Packet Radio Service and remote sensing, to collect information and creates a database. The collected data is used to analyze the information using GIS and statistical tools to allow tiger reserve managers to improve their wildlife protocols.[72]

Camera Traps

Camera traps are photographic devices equipped with motion sensors which captures the image or video when any animal passes nearby. The Guinness World Records recognized the country's efforts as the world's largest camera trap survey of wildlife in 2018–19.[2] Across 141 different sites and in 26,838 locations, these camera traps were set up to survey an area of 121,337 square kilometers capturing 34,858,623 photographs of wildlife in which 76,651 were tigers. These images were then fed to a stripe-pattern-recognition software which identified 2,461 individual tigers (excluding cubs).[73]

TX2

TX2 (Tiger times 2) goal is the global commitment driven by World Wide Fund for Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund, WWF) and undertaken by 13 range governments at the St Petersburg Tiger Summit (2010) to double the global tiger population in the wild by 2022 by giving priority, effort, innovation and investment for the recovery of tiger population.[74] India achieved this TX2 feat in 2018, four years ahead of the set target.[19] In order to bring the countries together for prioritizing tiger conservation and management globally, Global Tiger Day celebration was announced on 29 July at St Petersburg Tiger Summit 2010.[2]

Polymorphism

Sometimes a tiger with fur colour other than classical orange is recorded in India. These can be Black tiger, Golden tiger or White tiger variants. This polymorphism is due to genetic reasons. 2018 survey found pictures captured in camera-traps of a golden tiger in Kaziranga Tiger Reserve[17]: 622  and a black phenotype in Similipal Tiger Reserve.[17]: 622 

Conservation

As an apex predator, tigers are indicators of a healthy ecosystem. Conservation of tigers ensure the sustenance of healthy populations of herbivores and other carnivores.[53] Survival of tigers in the wild is dependent on the conservation and management efforts.[24] On 1 April 1973,[75] Government of India launched the Project Tiger 'to ensure maintenance of a viable population of Tigers in India for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values, and to preserve for all times, areas of biological importance as a national heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people.'[76] Implementation of this conservation project overs has highlighted the need for statutory institutional mechanism with administrative powers and legal backing which resulted in creation of National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) on 4 September 2006.[75] Highest degree of protection to tiger is provided under this law.[19]: 2  Committed goal-oriented efforts and investment in tiger conservation have produced desirable results.[68]

India has signed bilateral agreements China, Cambodia, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Russia to address issues of mutual concern for Tiger conservation.[19]: 4 [2]

To deal with reintroduction and supplementation in the areas that were once known for presence of tigers but presently have none or reduced tiger density, NTCA in 2022, released SOP titled, Tiger Reintroduction and Supplementation in Wild Protocol which has taken into account the scientific knowledge on the topic and conditions that are typical to India in order to effectively achieve the objective.[24]

Securing Habitat

Protected Areas (PA) were set up in India that served as refuge for the wild animals who were threatened by habitat loss due to anthropological pressures. Some of these protected areas were later identified as reserves. Tigers require vast region of undisturbed terrain with sufficient prey numbers so that they can repopulate and maintain the stable demographic and genetic continuance. In 1973, nine tiger reserves were declared as protected under law with cumulative area of approximately 18,278 km2. By 2018, it was expanded to fifty tiger reserves with nearly 72,749 km2. of protected area which formed about 2.21% of India's total geographical area.[17] As of July 2022, India has created 52 tiger reserves.[77] These tiger reserves have played important role in the success of Project Tiger since its inception.[78] Preventing habitat fragmentation and effectively managing the area under conversation benefits the wildlife.[79]

According to 2018 survey, tiger occupancy was found to be stable at an area 88,985 km2 across the country since 2014 estimate (88,558 km2).[17]: 33 

Tiger Reserves

A "tiger reserve" is legally mandated to designate a critical "core area" wherein human interference is strictly prohibited. A "buffer zone" surrounds the core-area, wherein conservation intent is to be prioritized over other land uses. Breeding populations of tigers are extensively in the core area of tiger reserves. The size of these tiger reserves in India vary between 344 km2. to 3,150 km2. with an average area of average 1,321 km2.[21]

2018 assessment shows Corbett Tiger Reserve with the largest population of about 231 tigers. Tiger Reserves at Bandhavgarh, Bandipur, Nagarhole, Mudumalai and Kaziranga each had over a hundred tigers while Dudhwa, Kanha, Tadoba, Sathyamangalam and Sundarbans Tiger Reserves had over 80 tigers each. Buxa and Dampa Tiger Reserves showed absence of population as these places are historically known for their poor tiger status. Deficiency in tiger numbers was seen at Indravati, Udanti-Sitanadi and Achanakmar Tiger Reserves owing to unsatisfactory law and order situation. Tiger numbers at other places like Amrabad, Anshi Dandeli, Buxa, Dampa, Kawal, Manas, Nagarjunsagar Sri Sailam, Nameri, Pakke, Palamau, Sanjay-Dubri and Similipal Tiger Reserves are below their potential. Targeted management with enhanced resources can yield positive results.[17]: 39 

Core, Buffer and Corridor

Tiger conservation follows the principle of "core-buffer-corridor". Core area is protected while buffer zones are in the periphery of the core area. Buffer area is meant for multiple use with community participation for supporting tiger conservation.[19]: 2  Corridors are the areas between the larger reserved forests which serves as the connecting geographical section of habitat that enables wildlife to move freely through the landscape. However, many of these corridors are not designated as protected areas and are prone to degradation due unsustainable human activities and developmental projects undertaken in these eco-sensitive areas.[17]: 6  NTCA has prioritized the protection, conservation and development of corridors at the national level due to its significance in ensuring tiger population growth.[78] These corridors would ensure genetic exchange through dispersal. The corridors would also serve to guard against extinction risks caused by environmental and man-made factors.[21] Nature Conservation Foundation under the grant of Project Tiger is working on the conservation of corridors in Cauvery-MM Hills-BR Hills landscape.[78]

Funds from Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) are being utilized for promoting voluntary village resettlement from core areas of the Tiger Reserves.[19]: 3 

Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CA|TS)

In 2020, the NTCA and the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change of India have announced the adoption of the Conservation Assured Tiger Standards (CA|TS) to all the tiger reserves covering over 7000 km2. land area which sets minimum standards to manage tiger species, and encourages assessments to benchmark progress.[80] As of July 2021, 14 Tiger Reserves in India - Manas, Kaziranga, Orang, Satpura, Pench, Kanha, Panna, Valmiki, Dudhwa, Parambikulam, Mudumalai, Bandipur, Anamalai and Sundarbans[20] - have been awarded with international CA|TS accreditation.[19]: 3  Efforts are on to bring in more Tiger Reserves under CA|TS accreditation.

Anti-Poaching Activities

The tiger is also protected under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Use of technology to improve patrolling and monitoring the tiger reserves reduces the poaching incidents. Better equipping the rangers of the forest decreases the threat of poaching and ensures the area is a safe haven for tigers and other wildlife moving through it.[68]

Forest officials on efficient vigil with M-STrIPES implementation, use of wireless communication devices, suitable gears and weapons for patrolling guards is important to boost the morale and increase the show of strength in vulnerable Protected Areas.[17]

Reducing Tiger-Human Conflict

While increase in the population leads tiger often breaching the formal protected areas of forests and roam outside the reserve perimeter to establish a new territory, the natural habitat destruction results in the decline of prey numbers hence the tiger looks for its food in human settlements. Both leads to increase in events of Tiger-Human conflicts. Research Institutes like Wildlife Institute of India are playing key role in studying and aiding government initiatives to bring down the number of such untoward instances.[78]

  • Number of tiger attacks by state between 2020-24:[1]
    • 200-Maharashtra, 61-Uttar Pradesh, 32-Madhya Pradesh, 17-Bihar, and 2-Karnataka.[1]
  • Number of people killed by year in tiger attacks in India:[1]
    • 51 in 2020, 59 in 2021, 110 in 2022, 85 in 2023, and 73 in 2024.[1]

India is working on a plan to use LIDAR based survey technology to reduce the incidence of conflict.[25]

Sustainable Livelihood Development

Maharashtra Forest Department has effectively managed to reduce the tiger-human conflict with the help of NGOs and grassroots organisations in providing the alternate source of energy and livelihood thereby reducing the dependence of local people on the forest resources and ensuring maintenance of forest cover for the long term survival of 200 odd tigers in their territory.[78] Both conservation and development can happen in a mutually complementary manner. India needs to prosper both economically and environmentally.[19]: 4  Implementation of community-based ecotourism model provides livelihood opportunities to the locals around the Tiger Reserves.[2]

Raising Awareness

Civil society organisations and NGOs often work with local population to motivate them to support the conservation efforts. Local youth often support the forest staff in patrolling and wildlife monitoring.[79]

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Wildlife Protection Society of India (WPSI) and Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) are some of the organizations working actively in the Indian tiger conservation forefront.

See also

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