TMSR (Chinese reactor project)

For other uses of the acronym, see TMSR.

Thorium Molten Salt Reactor Nuclear Energy System (TMSR)
钍基熔盐堆核能系统(TMSR)
TMSR site (trefoil) in Gansu province (red), and Shanghai campus.【Notes】
CountryChina
Key peopleXu Hongjie (徐洪杰)
Launched2011 (2011)
Websitehttp://www.sinap.cas.cn/zt/rydxcbd/
Status: Active

TMSR (a shortened initialism of English Thorium Molten Salt Reactor Nuclear Energy System[1] translated from Chinese: 钍基熔盐堆核能系统[2]) is a long-term research and development project of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), begun in 2011 and assigned to its Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP), to design, test, and build nuclear reactors that incorporate molten salt as a fuel-carrier and/or coolant, and thorium as a fertile material. The TMSR facilities grew from the collaborative efforts of "nearly 100 domestic research institutions, universities and industrial companies", and are now "the world's only research platform dedicated to molten salt reactors and thorium-uranium fuel cycle studies".[3]

Project 728

In the late 1960s, CAS had begun to contemplate the development of molten salt reactors using thorium.[4] Project 728 was launched in 1970 to develop nuclear power in China to mitigate an energy crisis caused by industrial fossil fuel demand exceeding domestic supply. Its initial goal was to build a 25 MWe power plant based on the 1960s Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in the US. A demonstration molten salt reactor (MSR) was built that achieved criticality in 1971, but was not intended to produce power. Further progress was hampered by the technological, industrial, and economic conditions in 1970s China however, and a pragmatic decision was made to develop pressurized light water reactors (PWRs) instead; their first commercial reactor, CNP-300 at Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant, began operations in 1991.[5][6][7][8]

Revisiting 728

The construction of PWRs did not extinguish the interest in MSR technology and Thorium breeding in China however.

Due to relatively limited domestic Uranium deposits, China's nuclear power production relies heavily on imported uranium,[9] a strategic vulnerability in the event of e.g. economic sanctions. The use of coal in China since the 1970s had also dramatically increased, and with it came serious air pollution that affected the health of large numbers of citizens. Finding cleaner energy sources became a pressing political concern (Note: modern non-hydro renewable energy in China was not ready until significantly later; PWR nuclear generated over 14 TWh in 1994, while wind power in China did not achieve that until 2009, and solar power in China not until 2014. Generation from hydroelectricity in China had been gradually increasing for decades, but only began rapidly expanding circa 2000.[10]). Some locations also make installing PWRs difficult; the relative lack of water available for cooling them west of the Hu line is seen as a limiting factor for siting them there (cf. Map of Chinese nuclear power plants). The perceived need for non-PWR nuclear in China was thus only increasing.

In the 1970s, global Thorium reserves were estimated to be on the order of 1 Mt,[11] and China was not considered to have especially rich deposits.[12] In the 1980s, the rare-earth industry in China began in earnest; rare earths are required for numerous high-tech devices which China manufactures. By the early 1990s, China was producing a majority of the world's rare earths, and by the end of the decade had achieved a near-monopoly. As a byproduct of its mining and refining, it was also generating Thorium far in excess of any non-nuclear needs. By 2009 it was noted that Thorium was being stockpiled in China for future nuclear use.[13]

Meanwhile, with the derailed attempt to make a Chinese MSRE clone still in living memory among their senior researchers, a treasure trove of information on how it was actually done unexpectedly appeared: Kirk Sorensen had obtained copies of numerous important historical ORNL research technical documents, and in an effort to raise awareness of Thorium and MSR technology, had them digitized, and then made publicly available on his website beginning in 2006. [14]

These new conditions invited a revisit of Project 728's original plan. Following the successful 2009 startup of the Shanghai Synchrotron Radiation Facility, a big science project of national interest to China, Xu Hongjie, who headed its construction,[15][16] was given a new assignment by CAS: in order to further China's energy policy and sustainable development goals, he should lay the groundwork for an advanced nuclear fission energy program. After a team was assembled, relevant literature reviewed, and topics for research identified, a plan focusing on reactors which use thorium and molten salt was submitted to CAS for approval.[17]

Project launched

In January 2011, CAS began the TMSR research and development project to create reactors which, among other advances, would use air cooling.[18][19] Its initial budget was reportedly ¥3 billion ($444 million USD then-equivalent; approximately $635 million as of 2025).[20] and was led by Xu Hongjie through SINAP, which established MSR research facilities in Shanghai's Jiading District.[21]

In 2012 a thorium energy conference was held in Shanghai, in partnership with SINAP; speakers included Xu Hongie, and Jiang Mianheng.[22][23][24] For the conference, The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer, the autobiography of Alvin M. Weinberg, who headed ORNL during the MSRE, was translated into Chinese, and copies made available to attendees.[25][26]

By 2014 the smog in China from burning coal had worsened (note e.g. 2013 Northeastern China smog and 2013 Eastern China smog) to a point where TMSR engineers were told to accelerate their efforts to bring a reactor online from 25 years to 10.[27]

In 2015, SINAP signed a decade-long Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA) with ORNL for technology transfer related to the MSRE and associated nuclear innovations.[28]

By 2019, the Bayan Obo Mining District was recognized as a major Thorium deposit, with China holding at least 0.1 Mt[29] Recent exploration at Bayan Obo has identified additional, massive Thorium deposits: 220,000 tons proven as of 2025, with total reserves estimated in excess of 1 million tons. The total for all of China is now thought to be 1.4 Mt.[30] By some estimates, this is enough to power China for 60,000 years.[31]

SF0

The initial project completed in Shanghai, in 2019, with operation starting the following year,[32] was the TMSR-SF0, an electrically-heated (non-fissioning) simulator to aid development of a proposed "SF" (solid fuel, planned as TRISO,[33] with molten salt only for cooling) branch of TMSR, as well as to gain operational experience using molten salt more generally. The SF0 has two liquid FLiNaK heat transport loops.[34]

LF1

Main article: TMSR-LF1

TMSR-LF1 (Chinese: 液态燃料钍基熔盐实验堆 lit.: "liquid fuel thorium-based molten salt experimental reactor") is a 2 MWt MSR prototype operating in northwest China.[35][36][7][37] The "LF" (liquid fuel) design is directly based on the 1960s MSRE.[38] The site selected for the TMSR-LF1 is part of an industrial park[39] for the chemical and energy sectors, in a sparsely populated, arid region (see Location notes section below). Site construction began in 2018.[20] Installation of equipment was finished in 2022.[3] Criticality was first achieved on 11 October 2023.[40][41][42] On 17 June 2024, full power (2MWt) operation was achieved.[42] Following the introduction of thorium into the reactor in late 2024, Protactinium-233 was detected, indicating successful nuclear breeding.[42][43][44]

SINAP deputy director Cai Xiangzhou emphasized China's ability to produce the technology without the involvement of foreign entities, stating that "Over 90 percent of the [LF1's] reactor's components are domestically produced, with 100 percent localization of key parts and a fully independent supply chain. This achievement marks the initial establishment of an industrial ecosystem for thorium molten salt reactor technologies in China".[45] SINAP's director, Dai Zhimin, stated that SINAP will work with energy companies, including the State Power Investment Corporation, "to build a comprehensive industrial and supply chain ecosystem for the thorium molten salt reactors."[45]

LF2

A pilot plant based on the LF1, as well as a fuel salt research facility, is planned for the same site. New reactor specifications include: core graphite 3 m tall x 2.2 m wide, 700 °C operating temperature, 60 MW thermal output, and an experimental supercritical carbon dioxide-based closed-cycle gas turbine to convert the thermal output to 10 MW of electricity.[46] Construction was slated to start in 2025, and be completed by 2029. The reactor's output would be used to demonstrate hydrogen production by high-temperature water splitting[47] ("purple hydrogen"[48]). A report compiled by the Chinese credit rating agency CSCI Pengyuan confirmed that site construction for the 60 MWt reactor (listed as "TMSR-LF2") began in September 2025, and is expected to last 48 months.[30] Criticality, and full power operation, are expected in 2030.[49]

Future plans

Following the completion of the 10 MW project, construction of a commercial small modular reactor (SMR) of at least 100 MWe is scheduled to begin in 2030.[40] A proposal, referring to it as the smTMSR-400, specifies 400 MWt to generate 168 MWe.[50] Such reactors are likely to be sited in central and western China, and may also be built outside China in Belt and Road Initiative nations; as low-carbon power plants, they would help to achieve the Chinese government's 2060 goal of carbon neutrality.[51]

In 2023, Jiangnan Shipyard released a conceptual design for a container ship using a TMSR-based reactor, designated KUN-24AP.[52] Jiangnan Shipyard Group Vice President Lin Qingshan stated in 2025 that it was planning to invest in shipyards for vessels employing nuclear marine propulsion, beginning with the aforementioned container ship. The ship's construction would begin as early as 2035, and feature a 200 MW reactor, cargo capacity of 25 thousand intermodal containers, and 40 year lifespan.[53] Hu Keyi, a senior engineer at Jiangnan, stated that the reactor would power the vessel electrically, generating approximately 50 MWe. A 10 MW backup diesel generator would also be included in the design. The TMSR unit would be "built as a sealed modular unit with a 10-year lifespan. Instead of refuelling it, the whole unit will be replaced after a decade, reducing the risk of leaks or human errors during maintenance."[54]

Future concepts

The 2025 CSCI Pengyuan report[30] additionally listed two further potential applications for TMSR technology: a bulk (thousands of kg per year) tritium source for ITER-scale nuclear fusion projects, and "Deep Space and Planetary Surface Energy": 1 MWe nuclear power in space that also generates process heat above 700 C. For a mission to the Moon, the salt used would be made there from lunar regolith; harvested lunar water would be split using the sulfur–iodine cycle, generating hydrogen and oxygen to be used as rocket propellant for a return trip.

References

  1. ^ Zhimin Dai (23 June 2017). "Thorium molten salt reactor nuclear energy system (TMSR)". Retrieved 18 January 2026. The thorium molten salt reactor nuclear energy system (TMSR) is designed for thorium-based nuclear energy utilization and hybrid nuclear energy application, based on a liquid-fueled thorium molten salt reactor (TMSR-LF) and a solid-fueled thorium molten salt reactor (TMSR-SF).
  2. ^ "未来先进核裂变能——钍基熔盐堆核能系统(TMSR)". Chinese Academy of Sciences. 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2026.
  3. ^ a b Wu Wanzhen, and Li Menghan (1 November 2025). "China achieves 1st thorium-to-uranium fuel conversion in molten salt reactor". China Daily. Part 4. Retrieved 6 November 2025.
  4. ^ "中国向下一代核反应堆迈出坚实一步" [China Takes a Solid Step Towards Next-Generation Nuclear Reactors]. Chinese Academy of Sciences (in Chinese). 3 November 2025. Retrieved 18 January 2026. 戴志敏：早在上世纪60年代末，中国科学院就提出发展钍基熔盐堆的相关想法
  5. ^ "Brief Introduction [to SINAP, in English]". SINAP. Retrieved 19 April 2025.
  6. ^ "50年前的今天，根据周总理批示，这项工程启动，代号728". Chinese Nuclear Society. 8 February 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2025. 最开始，也曾选择钍基熔盐堆作为发展民用核能的起步点，上海728 工程于1971年建成了零功率冷态熔盐堆并达到临界。但限于当时的科技、工业和经济水平，728工程转为建设轻水压水堆。
  7. ^ a b Liu, Yafen; Yan, Rui; Zou, Yang; Yu, Shihe; Zhou, Bo; Kang, Xuzhong; Hu, Jifeng; Cai, Xiangzhou (2020). "Sensitivity/Uncertainty comparison and similarity analysis between TMSR-LF1 and MSR models". Progress in Nuclear Energy. 122 103289. doi:10.1016/j.pnucene.2020.103289.
  8. ^ Details of the 1971 device are available in Appendix II ("HISTORY OF MSR TECHNOLOGY IN CHINA") of "Status of Molten Salt Reactor Technology (TECHNICAL REPORTS SERIES No. 489)" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2026.
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  10. ^ "Electricity Mix". Our World in Data. Retrieved 18 January 2026.
  11. ^ Stanley Bowie (30 May 1974). "Natural Sources of Nuclear Fuel". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A. 276 (1261): 495–505. doi:10.1098/rsta.1974.0034. JSTOR 74249. Retrieved 17 January 2026.
  12. ^ Even a generation later, in 2006 with global estimates revised to 6 Mt, China was still not identified as a Thorium-rich nation in the West. See Table 10.2 of "Forty Years of Uranium Resources, Production and Demand in Perspective". Nuclear Energy Agency. 2006. Retrieved 17 January 2026.
  13. ^ Richard Martin (21 December 2009). "Uranium Is So Last Century — Enter Thorium, the New Green Nuke". Wired (magazine). Retrieved 18 January 2026. The People's Republic recently ordered mineral refiners to reserve the thorium they produce so it can be used to generate nuclear power.
  14. ^ Summarizes MSR Accomplishments on YouTube, which shows the ORNL PDF Archive
  15. ^ "徐洪杰：钍基熔盐堆核能系统（TMSR）现状与展望". 27 September 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
  16. ^ "中国科协之声：在平凡中成就非凡——追忆徐洪杰". Shanghai Academy of Sciences. 31 December 2025. Retrieved 18 January 2026. [Note: Xu Hongjie was born January 8, 1955 and died September 14, 2025]
  17. ^ "生平介绍" [Biography]. SINAP (in Chinese). 16 September 2025. Retrieved 15 January 2026.
  18. ^ Dai Zhimin, Zou Yang, and Chen Kun (4 November 2016). "Thorium Molten Salt Reactors (TMSR) Development in China" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Wu Wanzhen, and Li Menghan (1 November 2025). "China achieves 1st thorium-to-uranium fuel conversion in molten salt reactor". China Daily. Part 3. Retrieved 6 November 2025.
  20. ^ a b "Chinese molten-salt reactor cleared for start up". World Nuclear News. World Nuclear Association. 9 August 2022. Retrieved 9 August 2022.
  21. ^ "中国科学院上海应用物理研究所财务与资产处岗位招聘启事". Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics. 19 September 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2022. 中国科学院上海应用物理研究所是国立综合性核科学技术研究机构，以钍基熔盐堆核能系统、高效能源存储与转换等先进能源科学技术为主要研究方向，同时兼顾核技术在环境、健康、材料领域的若干前沿应用研究，致力于熔盐堆、钍铀燃料循环、核能综合利用等领域的关键技术研发。研究所总体发展目标是用15年左右时间，以提高核能安全性、核燃料长期供应及放射性废物最小化为目标，在国际上率先实现钍基熔盐堆核能系统（TMSR）的系统验证和工业应用。研究所拥有两大园区，其中液态熔盐实验堆的研究与设计总部坐落在上海市科技卫星城嘉定区，实验堆坐落在甘肃省武威市民勤县，两园区分别占地面积共约400和1000亩。
  22. ^ "Announcing ThEC12 in Shanghai". International Thorium Energy Organization. 25 April 2012. Retrieved 23 January 2026.
  23. ^ "Thorium Energy Conference - ThEC12". International Thorium Energy Organization. Retrieved 23 January 2026.
  24. ^ A video playlist of presentations given at the 2012 Shanghai conference are available on YouTube
  25. ^ Mark Halper (25 March 2013). "Turning Japan's nuclear past into its future". ZDNET. Retrieved 23 January 2026.
  26. ^ Laurence O'Hagan (5 November 2012). "Found in Translation". The Alvin Weinberg Foundation. Retrieved 23 January 2026.
  27. ^ Stephen Chen (18 March 2014). "Chinese scientists urged to develop new thorium nuclear reactors by 2024". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 18 January 2026. Premier Li Keqiang told the national legislature in Beijing on March 5 that the government had declared "war on pollution" [...] Researchers working on the project said they were under unprecedented "war-like" pressure to succeed and some of the technical challenges they faced were difficult, if not impossible to solve in such a short period. (cf. Manhattan Project)
  28. ^ "ORNL and Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics cooperate on development of salt-cooled reactors". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 17 March 2015. Retrieved 16 January 2025.
  29. ^ "WORLD THORIUM OCCURRENCES, DEPOSITS AND RESOURCES" (PDF). IAEA. 2019. Retrieved 17 January 2026. The lack of official figures both for the thorium concentrations and the thorium resources makes it difficult to estimate the thorium resources of China. The total may range between 100 000 and several 100 000 t Th.
  30. ^ a b c "钍基熔盐堆第四代核技术改写全球核能格局" [Thorium-based Molten Salt Reactor Fourth Generation Nuclear Technology Reshapes the Global Nuclear Energy Landscape]. CSCI Pengyuan (in Chinese). 16 September 2025. Retrieved 17 January 2026.
  31. ^ Stephen Chen (1 March 2025). "China's thorium survey finds 'endless energy source right under our feet'". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 17 January 2026.
  32. ^ Jiajun Wangm, Ye Dai, Yang Zou, and Hongjie Xu (16 September 2020). "Transient analysis of TMSR-SF0 simulator". Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology. Retrieved 16 January 2026.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ "Fuel strategy for 2 MW SF-TMSR". IAEA. 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  34. ^ Wang, Jiajun; Dai, Ye; Zou, Yang; Xu, Hongjie (2024). "Uncertainty analysis of heat transfer of TMSR-SF0 simulator". Nuclear Engineering and Technology. 56 (2): 762–769. doi:10.1016/j.net.2023.11.016.
  35. ^ http://finance.eastmoney.com/news/1350,20180329850624284.html Archived 8 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine 实验平台及配套项目拟选址于武威市民勤县红砂岗工业集聚区，南侧紧邻纬七路、东侧紧邻东环路。
  36. ^ Tennenbaum, Jonathan (4 February 2020). "Molten salt and traveling wave nuclear reactors". Asia Times. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  37. ^ "The off-line installation and start-up of the thorium-based molten salt experimental reactor body and the first cooling salt discharge". SINAP (in Chinese (China)). 23 December 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
  38. ^ Richard Martin (2 August 2016). "Fail-Safe Nuclear Power". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
  39. ^ "民勤红沙岗工业园区". Website of Wuwei, Gansu. 15 April 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2022. 民勤红沙岗工业园区位于民勤县红砂岗镇 ["Minqin Hongshagang Industrial Park is located in Hongshagang Town, Minqin County"...] 低碳新能源产业区：位于规划区东部，以第四代反应堆核能系统—钍基熔盐堆核能系统（TMSR）项目为基础，拓展高温制氢、布雷顿循环发电和二氧化碳资源利用，建成模块化钍基熔盐示范堆、大规模低碳新能源示范系统等，形成以模块化钍基熔盐堆为核心的低碳高效复合能源系统研发、示范与产业化基地。["Low-carbon new energy industrial zone: located in the east of the planning area, based on the fourth-generation reactor nuclear energy system-thorium-based molten salt reactor nuclear energy system (TMSR) project, to expand high-temperature hydrogen production, Brayton cycle power generation and carbon dioxide resource utilization, and build modules. A thorium-based molten salt demonstration reactor, a large-scale low-carbon new energy demonstration system, etc., have formed a low-carbon and high-efficiency composite energy system R&D, demonstration and industrialization base with a modular thorium-based molten salt reactor as the core."]
  40. ^ a b Chen, Stephen (26 July 2024). "China sets launch date for world's first thorium molten salt nuclear power station". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 29 July 2024. [TMSR-LF1] achieved criticality, or sustainable, chain nuclear reaction in October.
  41. ^ "2023 Annual Report on Nuclear Safety" (PDF). National Nuclear Safety Administration (China). Retrieved 2 March 2025. The 2023 NNSA annual report states that TMSR-LF1 was "in operation", had "achieved its first criticality at 11:08 AM on October 11", and SINAP had reactor operator licenses for 15 people, of whom 8 were classified as "senior operators".
  42. ^ a b c Krepel, Jiri (22 January 2025). "Overview and Update of MSR Activities within GIF". Generation IV International Forum. Retrieved 27 February 2025. At 11:08 on October 11, 2023, TMSR-LF1 achieved first criticality. At 12:10 on June 17, 2024, 2MWt full power operation was achieved. On October 8, 2024, TMSR-LF1 operated at full power for 10 days with thorium fuel, and Pa-233 was detected
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  44. ^ "Chinese molten salt reactor achieves conversion of thorium-uranium fuel". World Nuclear Association. 4 November 2025. Retrieved 4 November 2025.
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  46. ^ "小型模块化钍基熔盐堆研究设施项目环境影响报告书（选址阶段）[Small Modular Thorium Molten Salt Reactor Research Facility Project Environmental Impact Report (site selection stage)]" (PDF). SINAP. August 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 December 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  47. ^ "The 20kW module/200kW high-temperature solid oxide electrolysis cell hydrogen production device has been selected into the first set of major technological equipment in the national energy field". SINAP. December 2024. Retrieved 27 April 2025.
  48. ^ De Blasio, Nicola (8 July 2024). "The Colors of Hydrogen". Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Retrieved 11 October 2025.
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Location notes

TMSR site (trefoil) in Minqin county (orange) is roughly 120 km (75 miles) north of Wuwei city (circled star)

The most recently published official Gansu site plan map is Figure 2.1-2 in [1]

The LF1 reactor is sited within an industrial park located in Hongshagang (town), Minqin (county), Wuwei (prefecture), Gansu (province), China. The area is a semi-desert just south of the Badain Jaran section of the Gobi. As per official documentation, the TMSR-LF1 site is located at 38°57′31″ N, 102°36′55″ E. However, due to the China GPS shift problem, the reactor location using Western GPS coordinates is approximately 38°57′37″N 102°36′44″E / 38.9602°N 102.6122°E / 38.9602; 102.6122 (about a third of a kilometer offset).

The LF2 reactor building is planned for approximately 38°57′33″N 102°36′36″E / 38.9593°N 102.6101°E / 38.9593; 102.6101 (Western coordinates).

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