List of rune-row inscriptions

The following is a list of rune-row inscriptions. These are runic inscriptions containing a sequence of runes in order. Based on the first six runes typically in the sequence, a rune-row may also be variously known as a fuþark (elder and younger fuþark), fuþorc (Anglo-Frisian) or fuþork (medieval).[1]

Some inscriptions listed are complete, whereas others contains only short sections like fuþ, or are fragments of a larger sequences. Despite often being portrayed in a standardised manner, the orders and shapes of the runes in these sequences vary considerably.[2]

Elder fuþark

Inscription Date Find location Object Runes Transliteration Comments
Hole Runestone c. 50 BCE-275 CE[3] Norway[3] Stone[3] ᚠᚢᚦ[3] fuþ[3] The earliest datable runestone and possibly the earliest known runic inscription. It is unclear if there was a conception of a whole ordered rune-row at this time.[3]
Kylver Stone c. 375-470[4] Gotland, Sweden[4] Stone[4] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲᚷᚹᚺᚾᛁᛃᛈᛇᛉᛊᛏᛒᛖᛗᛚᛜᛞᛟ[5] fuþarkgwhnijpezstbemlŋdo[4]
Lindkær and Over hornbæk bracteates c. 400-650[6][7] Denmark[6][7] Gold bracteates[6][7] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲᚷᚹᚺᚾᛖᛚᚨᛏᛒᛉᛋᚢᚨᛟ(?)ᚢ **ᚦ*ᚱᚲᚷᚹᚺᚾᛖᛚᚨᛏᛒᛉᛋᚢᛚᛟ(?)ᚢ[8][note 1] fuþarkgwhn(ij)æptbzselo(?)d **þ*rkgwhn(ij)æptbzselo(?)d[8] Both come from the same original design with anticlockwise writing but have unusual rune shapes and row order, likely from copying errors.[8] Due to the unconventional inscriptions, they are not always interpreted as rune rows.[6][7]
IK 392 Gudme 2 bracteate c. 400-650[11] Fyn, Denmark[11] Gold bracteate[11] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱ[8] fuþar[8] The first rune has only one branch, resembling ᚴ, despite often being interpreted as f.[12] The same design is seen in two other bracteates from Gudme.[8]
IK153,1 bracteate c. 400-650[13] Skåne, Sweden[13] Gold bracteate[13] ᚠᚢᚦᚱ[14] fuþr[13]
Vadstena and Mariedamm bracteates c. 450-600[15][16] Östergötland and Närke, Sweden, respectively Gold bracteates[17] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲᚷᚹ : ᚺᚾᛁᛃᛈᛇᛉᛋ : ᛏᛒᛖᛗᛚᛜᛟᛞ[17] fuþarkgw : hnijïpzs : tbemlŋod[17] Both bracteates were made from the same stamp and their text is anti-clockwise, with the runes also facing this direction.[17]
Breza pillar c. 500[18] Bosnia Marl column[19] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱ^ᚷᚹᚻᚾᛁᛃᛇᛈᛉᛋᛏᛖᛗᛚ[note 2][18] fuþarkqwhnijïpzsteml[18] The four missing runes from the row were likely on a fragment that broke off[18]
Grumpan bracteate c. 500-600[20] Västergötland, Sweden[20] Gold bracteate[20] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲᚷᚹ········ᚺᚾᛁᛃᛈ--····ᛏᛒᛖᛗᛚᛜᛟᛞ····[8][20] fuþarkgw········ hnijï(p)--····tbeml(ŋ)(o)d······[8][20] The ŋ has alternatively been interpreted as a bind rune with i.[8]
Aquincum brooch c. 535-560[21] Brooch[21] Budapest, Hungary[21] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲᚷᚹ[22] fuþarkgw[22]
Charnay Fibula c. 550-600[23] Burgundy, France[24] Silver fibula[25] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᚲᚷᚹᚻᚾᛁᛃᛇᛈᛇᛈᛉᛋᛏᛒᛖᛗ[24][note 3] fuþarkgwhnijïpzstbem[26]
Beuchte brooch c. 550[27] Niedersachsen, Germany[28] Silver-gilt brooch[27] ᚠᚢᚦᚨᚱᛉᛃ[27] fuþarzj[27]
Lány rune bone c. 600[29] Břeclav, Czech Republic[29] Bone fragment (ᛏ)ᛒᛖᛗᛞᛟ[29] (t)bemdo[note 4][29] This is the only known South-Germanic inscription with the end of the older fuþark rune row and, and the only found in a Slavic cultural context.[29]

English fuþorc

Inscription Date Location Object Runes Transliteration Comments
Malton pin c. 8th century[30] Yorkshire, England[31] Pin ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳᚷᛚᚪᚫᛖ fuþorcglaæe[31]
Brandon pin c. 8th century[32] Norfolk, England[22] Pin[32] ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳᛡᚹᚻᚾᛁᛄᛇᛈᛉᚴ[32] fuþorcgwhnijïps[32]
Seax of Beagnoth c. 10th century[33] London, England[34] Seax[33] ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳᚷᚹᚻᚾᛁᛄᛇᛈᛉᛋᛏᛒᛖᛝᛞᛚᛗᛟᚪᚫᚣᛠ[34] fuþorcgwhnijïpxstbeŋdlmœaæy ea[34][33] The order and form of the runestaves may suggest the inscription was based off a manuscript fuþorc.[33]

Younger fuþark

Inscription Date Location Object Runes Transliteration Comments
Penrith brooch c. 10th century[35] Cumberland, England[35] Silver brooch[35] fuþorkhniastbmm[35] This inscription uses short-twig runes.[35]

Medieval fuþork

At least 70 partial or complete medieval rune-rows are known from the Bryggen inscriptions.[36] These include:

Inscription Date Location Object Runes Transliteration Comments
N B17 c. 12th-16th century Bergen, Norway[37] Small stick[37] ᚠᚢᚦᚮᚱᚴᚼᚿᛁᛆᛌᛐᛒᛘᛚᛦ[38] fuþorkhniastbmly[37]
N B521 c. 12th-16th century[39] Bergen, Norway[39] Small stick[39] fuþ[39]
N B592 c. 12th-16th century[40] Bergen, Norway[40] Small stick[40] fuþorkhniastbmlyfuþorkhnia f fuþobkhniarmlyfuþorkhnisabmly[40]

Other examples include:

Inscription Date Location Object Runes Transliteration Comments
Vr 4 c. 1200-1233 Värmland, Sweden[41] Sandstone font[41] fuþorkhniastblmʀ fuþ[41]

Function

Rune-rows may have been tools for teaching and learning writing. This likely is the case with the Kylver stone, which has no commemorative function.[42] Similarly, the Hole runestone has scribbled markings throughout the stone that may reflect use as a writing tablet. It has been suggested that it originates from an early period in which writing in runes was an emergent skill that carvers were learning to master.[43][44] The sequences may also have been intended to have a magical or protective function, particularly in the case of bracteates, where they would have been worn and often have texts that suggest an illiterate maker copying designs.[33][30][45]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Forms of some runes differ from this representation due to unicode limitations and the extensive variability and unconventional shapes used. More accurate transcriptions and images can be found in the references.[9][10][8]
  2. ^ The p, for example is actually the form with a vertical line on both sides, not just the left. It is presented as it is here due to unicode limitations.[18]
  3. ^ Forms of some runes differ from this representation due to unicode limitations. the p, for example is actually the form with a vertical line on both sides, not just the left. The j resembles a mirror image of ᛋ.[24]
  4. ^ ᛏ (t) identification is uncertain due to damage to the find.[29]

References

  1. ^ Barnes 2022, p. 4.
  2. ^ Barnes 2022, pp. 4–5.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Zilmer & Vasshus 2023.
  4. ^ a b c d Kylver.
  5. ^ Looijenga 2003, p. 197.
  6. ^ a b c d Lindkær.
  7. ^ a b c d DR BR22.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Antonsen 2002, p. 178.
  9. ^ LindkærImage.
  10. ^ DR BR22Image.
  11. ^ a b c Gudme.
  12. ^ Wicker & Williams 2012, p. 191.
  13. ^ a b c d IK 153,1.
  14. ^ IK 153,1_Image.
  15. ^ Vadstena.
  16. ^ Mariedamm.
  17. ^ a b c d Antonsen 2002, p. 177.
  18. ^ a b c d e Looijenga 1999, p. 272.
  19. ^ Looijenga 1999, p. 263.
  20. ^ a b c d e Grumpan.
  21. ^ a b c Aquincum.
  22. ^ a b c Looijenga 1997, p. 113.
  23. ^ Findell 2012, p. 384.
  24. ^ a b c MacLeod & Mees 2006, p. 41.
  25. ^ Findell 2012, p. 383.
  26. ^ Findell 2012, p. 385.
  27. ^ a b c d Looijenga 2003, pp. 229–230.
  28. ^ Findell 2012, pp. 375–376.
  29. ^ a b c d e f Macháček 2021.
  30. ^ a b MaltonPin.
  31. ^ a b Page 2006, p. 219.
  32. ^ a b c d Looijenga 2003, p. 199.
  33. ^ a b c d e beagnoþ.
  34. ^ a b c Looijenga 2003, p. 198.
  35. ^ a b c d e PenrithRunor.
  36. ^ BryggenOverview.
  37. ^ a b c N B17.
  38. ^ N B17_Image.
  39. ^ a b c d N B521.
  40. ^ a b c d N B592.
  41. ^ a b c Vr 4.
  42. ^ Antonsen 2002, p. 179.
  43. ^ Solheim et al. 2025.
  44. ^ Biørnstad 2025.
  45. ^ Antonsen 2002, pp. 178–179.

Bibliography

Databases

  • "RuneS: Aquincum brooch". www.runesdb.de.
  • "British Museum, pin". The British Museum. Retrieved 28 February 2026.
  • "British Museum, seax". The British Museum. Retrieved 28 February 2026.
  • "Die Goldbrakteaten der Völkerwanderungszeit. 1,3, ikonographischer katalog: lindkær". www.digitale-sammlungen.de. Retrieved 26 February 2026.
  • "Die Goldbrakteaten der Völkerwanderungszeit. 1,3, ikonographischer katalog: DR BR22". www.digitale-sammlungen.de. Retrieved 27 February 2026.
  • "Die Goldbrakteaten der Völkerwanderungszeit. 1,3, ikonographischer katalog: IK 153,1". www.digitale-sammlungen.de. Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  • "Runor, N B17". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 28 February 2026.
  • "Runor, N B521". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 28 February 2026.
  • "Runor, N B592". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 28 February 2026.
  • "Runor, DR BR22". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 27 February 2026.
  • "Runor, Grumpan". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 25 February 2026.
  • "Runor, Gudme". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 28 February 2026.
  • "Runor, IK 153,1". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 3 March 2026.
  • "Runor, Kylver". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 19 February 2026.
  • "Runor, Lindkær". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 26 February 2026.
  • "Runor, Mariedamm". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 25 February 2026.
  • "Runor, Penrith". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 28 February 2026.
  • "Runor, Vadstena". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 25 February 2026.
  • "Runor, Vr 4". runor.raa.se. Retrieved 8 March 2026.
  • "Nasjonalbiblioteket, N B17". www.nb.no. Retrieved 28 February 2026.

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