Romanian folk violin

Romanian folk violin (Romanian: vioară, Romanian pronunciation: [/viˈo̯a.rə/]; also diblă, scripcă, ceteră, higheghe, țibulcă, braci) is a bowed string musical violin instrument that plays a leading role in Romanian lăutărească music. Unlike other Romanian folk instruments (for example the fluier and the cimpoi), the Romanian violin entered folk practice from wider European musical culture and became established primarily as an instrument of professional musicians – lăutari. Lăutari adapted its technical possibilities to the demands of folk repertoire and regional performance styles.

Romanian folk violin developed at the intersection of Ottoman-influenced and Western European musical traditions. Lăutari violinists use non-tempered intonation, microchromatic inflections, and extensive ornamentation. In a traditional ensemble (taraf), the violin carries the melody and develops it through improvisation. Distinct regional forms of the instrument, and playing technique, developed across ethnographic areas, such as the Transylvanian violin (Romanian: braci) and folk variants of the Stroh violin.

The rhythmic organization of lăutari violin music includes both symmetrical dance structures and asymmetrical rhythmic models (aksak), as well as flexible treatment of metre. Techniques of lăutari violinists and the ensemble practice of the taraf were used in 20th-century classical music, and most notably by Béla Bartók and George Enescu.

The earliest reliable written references to the violin in the Romanian principalities date to the mid-17th century. The Italian monk Niccolò Barsi, who visited the Principality of Moldavia, noted in 1640 that dances used violins, bagpipes, pipes, drums, and three-string lutes (Italian: violini, sordelline, piffari, tamburi, collascioni con tre corde). The word vioară appears in a Romanian translation of Învățăturile lui Neagoe Basarab către fiul său Teodosie made around 1650. The same period includes the first mentions of specific performers: a 1675 document refers to "Ivan the violinist from Tătărani" (Romanian: Ivan viorarul ot Tătărani). No information survives on the construction of the instruments called "violins" in the 17th century.^[1]

From the 18th century onward, sources become more numerous and detailed. The French historian Jean‑Louis Carra, who visited Iași in 1775, described Romani musicians playing the violin, the cobza, and a pipe with eight holes (French: Le violon, la guittare allemande, & un sifflet à huit embouchures...).^[i][2] The Austrian historian Franz Josef Sulzer, in his History of Transalpine Dacia (1781), noted that lăutari usually play one or two violins, sometimes accompanied by the nai or the cobza. In the illustrated manuscript of the Romanian translation of Erotokritos (1787), the violin is mentioned; in the same manuscript the artist depicts it as a standard violin with a bow shaped like an arch, and the violinist is the only musician dressed in European clothing. In 1820 the British consul in Moldavia and Wallachia, William Wilkinson, noted "the instruments mostly used are the common violin, the Pan-pipe, and a kind of guitar or lute peculiar to the country".^[3] One of the earliest depictions of the violin is a church fresco from 1784 in Lunca Asău (Bacău County, Moldavia), where the painter placed a violinist into a "Last Judgment" scene. In this period the clergy often viewed the violin as a reprehensible instrument associated with secular amusements; for that reason, in religious painting violinists were often shown in infernal scenes as companions of sinners.^[4]

The violin gradually displaced earlier bowed instruments. Sulzer mentions die Kiemany – an instrument with a convex back like a mandolin, played with a bow while held on the knee. Researchers connect it with Turkish: kemençe rumi (Byzantine lyra).^[ii] The Romanian folklorist Teodor T. Burada also mentions another "keman" with six or seven main strings and the same number of sympathetic strings; by description it resembles a "chest keman" (Turkish: sînekemani), a borrowed variant of the European viole d'amour. Even at the beginning of the 19th century, the keman enjoyed high status among the upper strata in Moldavia and Wallachia, and boyars took lessons from well-known musicians of the time. Another instrument displaced by the violin in the 18th–19th centuries was the hurdy-gurdy (known as Romanian: liră, Romanian: lăută or Romanian: organ), in which sound is produced by a wooden wheel rubbing the strings; by the mid‑19th century it survived mainly among itinerant blind musicians in northern Moldavia and Transylvania.^[5][6]

By the early 19th century, the violin had definitively established itself in all Romanian regions. It spread widely due to its technical possibilities: it could convey intricate ornamentation of fast dances and extended improvisations in doinas while imitating the human voice. In the 19th century, a virtuoso performance style developed in lăutari circles, with the violin in the leading role.^[7]

The main and generally accepted name of the instrument in both folk and scholarly usage is vioara (Romanian: vioară), more rarely violină. In the Romanian translation of Erotokritos (1787) a diminutive form violiță is used. According to Burada, the term vioară originally referred to the viola, so a diminutive was applied to the smaller instrument – the violin.^[8]

Alongside the standard name, regional terms persist. In Moldavia the instrument is also called scripca (Romanian: scripcă), whereas in Transylvania, as well as in Maramureș and Țara Oașului, the archaic name cetera (Romanian: ceteră, citeră, tieceră) is common, deriving from Latin: cithara. In Bihor the name higheghe (Romanian: higheghe, higheză), borrowed from Hungarian, is used, while in western Oltenia and southern Transylvania dibla (Romanian: diblă, diplă) occurs. In some villages of Dobruja the Bulgarian-derived name țibulca (Romanian: țibulcă) is found. A separate term is lăută (variant laută): historically it meant a type of lute or cobza, but over time it also came to denote the violin. In that meaning it is used in southern Transylvania and southern Moldavia (lăută), and in the Banat, Hunedoara, and parts of Muntenia (laută).^[8][9][10]

Names for performers are normally derived from local instrument terms: ceteraș; scripcar or scripcaș; diblaș; higheduş or highediş; and the most common lăutar or lăutaş. In the past, zicălaş (from Romanian: zicală, "dance tune") and Slavonic-derived igreţ were also used.^[8]

Traditional names for violin parts also vary regionally. The bow is called arcuş, more rarely arc or harc. In the 20th century in Muntenia older string names survived: the lowest (G) was sârmă ("wire"), the second (D) burdui, burdoi or rag (cf. drone), the third (A) mijloc ("middle"), and the highest (E) subţire ("thin"). In modern practice folk musicians more often use German-derived letter names: ghe, de, a, e.^[8]

In lăutărească music, the violin occupies a central place. Unlike indigenous instruments (such as the fluier or cimpoi), which were made by peasants from readily available materials for personal leisure, the violin was a purchased and relatively expensive instrument. As a result, it did not become widespread in everyday rural life, instead becoming an instrument of professional musicians – lăutari – among whom a significant proportion were Romani. For them, playing at celebrations and rituals was a profession; skills and repertoire were usually transmitted within the family. Lăutari adapted the borrowed instrument to local aesthetics, imitating vocal intonations and the sound of older wind instruments. As a result, a specific performance style developed: folk violinists use distinctive bowings, rich melismatic ornamentation, and various scordaturas, producing a characteristic "folk" sound. Despite its foreign origin, the violin was fully assimilated into the folk context. According to the ethnomusicologist Tiberiu Alexandru, it is an example of successful borrowing that did not undermine folk originality but expanded its expressive means.^[11]

In construction, the Romanian folk violin generally corresponds to the standard violin, but performance practice led to a number of modifications. Lăutari usually play factory-made instruments; alongside this, local violin makers also work. After acquiring an instrument, musicians often modify it themselves. For example, Constantin Brăiloiu observed in 1938 that a lăutar from Vrancea scraped away some wood from the top plate to make the sound less "wooden".^[12]

In some regions the standard four-string violin was sometimes supplemented with a fifth sympathetic string. This was a thin metal string placed between the G and D strings. Two tuning variants are attested: in Târgoviște it was often tuned to g¹ to strengthen resonance of the open bass string, while in parts of Târgoviște and in the Făgăraș region it was tuned to C. An extra peg was installed for fastening. The fifth string was purely sympathetic: the performer did not touch it with either bow or left hand; it vibrated by resonance, enriching timbre and strengthening related partials.^[13]

In Vrancea an even more complex modification occurs, with five, six, or seven sympathetic strings called teluri by local lăutari.^[iii] As resonators, ordinary E strings are used, fixed under the main strings in a special scheme so as not to interfere with bowing.^[iv] Their tuning varies with performer preference and experience. Musicians describe the effect as making the instrument "respond to the voice" and giving a "sweeter" timbre. The construction is traced back to the Eastern keman (Turkish: sînekemani), which had four to seven such strings. Sources also mention that violins with sympathetic strings previously occurred in Oltenia.^[14]

Older lăutari, especially around Târgoviște, used a special way of storing rosin (in Romani: makló): they melted it and glued it directly onto the instrument, on the back of the neck. This allowed quick bowing up during crowded weddings in short pauses between dances.^[8]

To obtain an extremely high tuning – up to a perfect fifth above the classical pitch – folk makers in Țara Oașului significantly rework purchased violins (ceteras). The main technique is shifting the first three strings one position toward the bass, so the fourth string is tuned to D instead of G, and the first is tightened up to B. Changes also affect the bridge, which is heavily filed down, becoming a few millimeters lower and flatter. This brings strings closer, facilitating double stops while also increasing loudness. To shorten speaking length and ease high tuning, the bridge and soundpost are moved upward toward the neck, and the tailpiece is shifted accordingly to preserve correct afterlength. As a result, the cetera becomes a specialized instrument able to cut through the piercing vocal style typical of Oaș.^[15]

A specific adaptation, most common in Bihor and parts of Arad, is the "violin with horn" (Romanian: vioară cu goarnă), also known as lăută cu tolcer. Structurally, it is a simplified folk variant of the Stroh violin. Its resonant body is replaced by a mica membrane on which the bridge is set; one or two metal horns amplify the sound. It produces a metallic, nasal timbre and has strong projection. Although today it is centered mainly in Bihor and Arad, historically this type also spread to the Năsăud and Mureș areas (Banat), as well as Oltenia and Muntenia.^[16]

Violins used for harmonic accompaniment are known in Transylvania (Năsăud, Mureș and Cluj regions) and in northern Banat as braci (Romanian: braci; variants: săcundă, coantră, contralaucă). These are modified violins (sometimes violas) with three strings on a cut-down flat bridge. Their technique excludes melody playing: because of the flat bridge, the bow touches all strings at once, so performers play chords by stopping the strings with the left hand and drawing the bow to produce full triads.^[17][18]

The rib height of such instruments can reach about 7 cm, compared to about 3 cm on a standard violin. The increased corpus depth brings the instrument closer to 17th-century European bowed strings and gives it a specific resonance; some also preserve an archaic rib attachment method (set into grooves in the plates), replaced by glued butt joints by the mid‑17th century in classical violin making.^[19]

The lăutari musical language combines Eastern and Western European traditions. According to the American researcher Robert Garfias, across the 19th–20th centuries lăutari combined two distinct aesthetic systems: Turkish makam and Western major–minor harmony. Over time they simplified strict makam canons and ceased using traditional names, but key features of Eastern modes remained in performance practice, often requiring departures from European tonal norms. A common mode in lăutărească music is a Hijaz-type makam, sometimes called the "Gypsy makam" in Turkish tradition.^[20]

Musicians use a non-tempered system: melodic motion is guided not by fixed scale degrees but by intervallic tendencies between tones.^[v] This produces a microchromatic effect. The preservation of Eastern makam structures is supported by instrumental analysis of field recordings. For example, analysis of a recording by the violinist Aurel Gore in the song Cântec la masă mare shows a consistent flattening of the second scale degree by about two commas. Such deviation corresponds to practices in makams like Dügah and Saba and points to continued Ottoman makam principles in lăutărească music.^[21]

A key element is extensive ornamentation, called "little flowers" (Romanian: floricele). It includes mordents, trills, and grace notes; musicians who play without ornaments are said to play "straight" or "simple". Beyond standard devices, "false lăutari trills" occur – intense tremolo with brief upper-note touches. Glissando and portamento are also widely used, for attacks from below or above; in the Moldavian school (e.g., Constantin Lupu), short terminal glissandi at phrase endings are characteristic.^[22][23]

Rhythmic organization combines symmetric and asymmetric structures. Dance repertoire widely uses aksak – irregular metres such as the seven-beat geampara (2+2+3) and the nine-beat cadînească (2+2+2+3).^[24]

In lyrical genres, rhythm changed substantially as it was incorporated into professional lăutari practice. Where rural doina is performed in free rhythm without accompaniment, in lăutari tarafs the solo violin (or vocal line) retains free rhythm while the ensemble accompanies in strict metre, typically at a fast hora tempo. This contrast is a hallmark of the professional tradition.^[25]

Micro-rhythmic unevenness appears as deviations from even pulse even in symmetric dances. Instead of equal subdivisions (e.g., 4+4), irregular proportions arise (roughly from 5+4 to 11+9); measurements show long/short ratios around 0.73–0.80, creating a "wobbling" pulse difficult to notate in Western metre. At fast tempi, motion is intensified by subdividing bars into small asymmetric units, such as 12-part permutations instead of standard 8 or 16, compared by researchers to some rhythmic structures in American jazz.^[26] Ensemble practice adds "harmonic delay", where accompaniment instruments (cimbalom, double bass) change chords slightly after the first violin’s melodic line, creating characteristic rhythmic tension.^[27]

Violin tuning is not tied to an absolute standard; lăutari deliberately vary pitch height depending on region, repertoire, and acoustics. Relative to the standard tuning (G–D¹–A¹–E²), they tune the instrument a semitone or a whole tone lower or higher. Shifts beyond a whole tone are rare. Pitch level can also depend on genre: in northern Transylvania and in Oaș and Maramureș, for example, players tune the cetera lower for dances than for songs and doine.^[28]

Beyond overall pitch shifts, musicians widely apply scordatura – changes in interval relationships between strings. This serves several aims: timbral effects (including from reduced string tension), imitation of other instruments, easier double stops, or the ability to play in specific modal systems. Musicians call the process "spoiling" the tuning (Romanian: stricarea drăsurii). Scordatura is most common in Oltenia (over half of documented types) and Muntenia, also found in Transylvania, and much rarer in Moldavia and Bukovina. It is used mainly by older, experienced lăutari for archaic repertoire. Typically one or two strings are retuned, more rarely three; scordature affecting all four strings are also described.^[29][30] Researchers note that of 23 scordatura types known in classical violin music, professional lăutari use 11 and add 26 original variants developed within lăutari practice.^[31][17]

The first detailed information on Romanian lăutari scordatura dates to the mid‑19th century. The Romanian writer Nicolae Filimon noted in 1864 that for folk songs lăutari lower the E string by a whole tone, and he recorded old string names: rast (G), neva (D), saba (A), and neva again (E). These names derive from Eastern makam terminology, denoting key degrees. Ottoman music entered the professional lăutari milieu during the Phanariote period, when Eastern court culture strongly influenced urban music in the Romanian principalities. Using one name for two different strings is explained by a specific scordatura: G–D¹–A¹–D², reproducing the tuning of the Turkish (chest) keman.^[32][33]

Some characteristic melodic violin retunings include:

• "Straight tuning" (Romanian: dresura dreaptă, also cu subțirea jos or cu subțirea lăsată): E² lowered to D², yielding G–D¹–A¹–D²; used for various dances, and in Târgoviște older masters used it constantly (sometimes using a long silk thread as the top string).^[34]

• Bagpipe imitation: G lowered a fourth to D, melody on D¹ with constant open lower-string droning; tuning D–D¹–A¹–E².^[35]

• "Overlaid strings" (Romanian: corzi încălecate): A¹ lowered to E¹ and brought very close to E² at the bridge (sometimes sharing a groove), enabling parallel-octave playing and an "Eastern" timbre.^[36][37]

• Symmetric paired tuning (documented in Moldavia for Turceasca): D¹ raised to G¹, A¹ lowered to D¹, and E² lowered to D², producing octave pairs G–G¹ and D¹–D².^[38]

• "The clock" (Romanian: Ceasul): used for clock-ticking imitation via pizzicato; often E² lowered to C♯², with more complex variants retuning three strings.^[39]

Unlike melodic violin scordatura, accompanying violins have a permanent specialized tuning. They typically have three strings and a flattened bridge enabling the bow to contact all strings and play full triads. Three main tuning schemes are distinguished:

• Triad-based tuning: G–D¹–A (with A an octave below standard and placed between G and D¹ in pitch).
• Drone-unison tuning: G–D¹–G (outer strings in unison).
• Mixed tuning: G–A–D¹.^[40]

Romanian lăutari use violin techniques uncommon in academic schools. Instead of clamping the instrument between shoulder and chin, folk musicians mostly support it with the left hand: the neck rests deep in the palm, and the wrist often bends inward, taking much of the instrument’s weight. This frees the neck and allows the performer to sing or shout rhythmic calls to dancers (Romanian: strigături), but it affects technique. Because the palm is close to the neck, strings are stopped with flatter finger pads rather than fingertips, producing characteristically wide and slow vibrato. Since the left hand also bears weight, fast silent shifts typical of academic playing are difficult; shifts are slower and audible, often shaped as expressive glissandi.^[41][42]

Bow hold is less rigidly standardized than in academic practice and is often adapted to repertoire. Some violinists hold the bow not at the frog but several centimeters higher, believed to facilitate short, sharp strokes in the middle of the bow with less physical effort.^[37] Finger placement can also differ: rather than balancing with a curved pinky on the stick, many place the pinky on top or let it hang over the stick, resembling cello technique. Because off-the-string strokes (e.g., spiccato) are rare in folk practice, the pinky’s lever function is less needed; a freer hold supports high-speed detaché through active wrist and finger motion.^[43]

To create specific or imitative sounds, lăutari use special techniques, including:^[44]

• Spindle imitation: in Romanian: Fusul ("The spindle"), a horsehair taken from the bow is tied to the G or D string near the bridge; the player rhythmically pulls it with rosin-coated fingers to vibrate the string while the left hand plays the melody.
• Use of a small glass (Romanian: păhărel): a small glass is placed on the top plate so it rests on the upper part of the bridge and the tailpiece, producing a nasal timbral effect used for parodying church singing or imitating other instruments.

In lăutărească music, the violin is the leading instrument of the taraf.^[vi] In most regions the first violin (Romanian: primaș) acts as artistic leader. The primaș plays preludes and interludes, sometimes doubles the vocal line, while other members – one or more second violins, violas, cobza, cimbalom, double bass, and accordion – provide harmonic and rhythmic accompaniment.^[45]

Stable ensemble types developed across Romanian ethnographic regions. In Muntenia and Moldavia, the violin was traditionally accompanied by the cobza. In the mid‑19th century, Franz Liszt, comparing Moldavian and Wallachian practice with Hungarian, noted accompaniment of the violin melody by "…a continuously sustained bass…, invariably limited to the tonic…".^[46][47] From the late 19th century the cobza began to be displaced by the cimbalom; in the 20th century these in turn began to be displaced by the accordion.^[47] In northern Oltenia an accompanying instrument is a three- or four-string folk guitar tuned on the cobza principle (Romanian: chitară cobzită). In Maramureș, the cetera is accompanied by a differently tuned guitar known as the zongora.^[48]

In Transylvania a clear division developed between melodic violins and rhythmic-harmonic ones (braci). The braci does not play the melody but provides chordal support; the primaș freely varies the melody while the accompaniment maintains ostinato formulas and only loosely aligns harmony with the melodic line. Because chord changes are not synchronized and parts may diverge, harsh sonorities arise; György Ligeti considered these "collisions" a natural result of the technique rather than mistakes. This accompaniment system influenced Bartók, who borrowed the principle of independent voice motion and superimposed rhythmic formulas generating dissonances outside classical harmony.^[49][50]

The violin is one of the most versatile instruments in Romanian folklore and is used in nearly all genres – from improvisatory doine to ritual cycles. In the epic ballad genre (Romanian: baladǎ or cântec bătrânesc), the violinist acts as a musical narrator. Performances typically begin with an improvisatory introduction – taksim (Romanian: taxîm) – that establishes the modal basis and emotional tone; the violin accompanies the voice and plays extended instrumental interludes, alternating recitative with virtuoso passages.^[51][52][53]

In the lyrical doina genre, the violin aims to imitate the human voice, using microchromatic inflections, glissando, and rich melismatic ornamentation. Its technical possibilities allow strong development of the vocal prototype, expanding range, complicating form, and saturating melody with ornaments.^[54][55]

From the mid‑19th century, dance music was performed predominantly by lăutari tarafs, with the violin in the leading role. Dance tunes make up a substantial part of folk violinists’ repertoire; fieldwork in Muntenia suggests that a single village repertoire can include up to 50 dances.^[56]

The violin also plays an important role in ritual practice, accompanying many family and calendar rituals. In the wedding cycle it sounds during the ritual shaving of the groom, the bride’s farewell to the parental home, and honoring the wedding godparents; during feasts violinists play music "for listening" (Romanian: de ascultare). It also provides the rhythmic and melodic basis for the male ritual dance căluș. In Muntenia, violinists play at funerals of unmarried young people.^[57]

In lăutari communities, skills are passed orally from father to son or from older to younger relatives. The start age is not strictly regulated: interest may appear at ages 5–7, but systematic training more often starts at 10–12, and sometimes as late as 15–18. Despite late starts, students often reach a high technical level quickly (sometimes within two years). Training proceeds without notation or theoretical manuals and is based on continuous imitation of the teacher.^[58]

Training unfolds in several stages. First the child is a listener at rehearsals, family events, and feasts, gradually absorbing musical language, rhythm, and repertoire by watching older musicians. After obtaining an instrument, the student reproduces simple melodies under guidance, focusing on copying intonation and ornamentation rather than mechanical exercises. A key stage is playing in a taraf at real events; at first the teacher assigns simple accompaniment parts, developing rhythmic discipline and ensemble interaction. Professional formation is considered complete when the musician masters improvisation and can retain a large repertoire of dance, vocal, and ritual melodies. Judgement of mastery depends not only on technique but also on ability to adapt performance to audience and situation.^[59]

Historical surveys and 19th‑century publications mention violinists through whom lăutari repertoire became known beyond local contexts. For example, Nicolae Picu (1789–1864) is mentioned in an illustrated encyclopedia The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in Word and Picture (1899) as the best lăutar of Bukovina; through him Romanian folk melodies became known to composers and musicians such as Franz Liszt and Karol Mikuli.^[60][61][62]

In Bessarabia – Chișinău and county centers – sources also mention virtuoso violinists: Iancu Perja (Chișinău), Lemiș (Bălți), Costache Parno (Bălți), and Gheorghe Murga, who led a large taraf in Dubăsari.^[63]

In the 20th century traditional music was increasingly recorded and described through field expeditions and scholarly institutions. In 1928, Constantin Brăiloiu recorded performances by the Bukovinian violinist and taraf leader Sidor (Isidor) Andronicescu (1892–date unknown).^[64] In the 1950s other performers also worked with the Institute of Ethnography and Folklore: Alexandru Cercel (1883–1970) recorded about 150 melodies in 1957, and Lache Găzaru (1912–1970) recorded more than 180 melodies, mainly old ballads.^[65][66]

From the second half of the 20th century, some lăutari violinists became better known through staged performances and record releases, often in collaboration with folklorists. Nicolae Neacșu (1924–2002) from Muntenia came to wider attention through the work of Speranța Rădulescu; he played with Taraful din Clejani and later Taraf de Haïdouks, and took part in projects with Yehudi Menuhin.^[67] The Romanian state label Electrecord issued recordings of Aurel Gore (1930–1989).^[68] Constantin Lupu (1951–2013), a violinist and folklorist from Botoșani (Moldavia), released an album on Ethnophonie, a label created by Speranța Rădulescu.^[69]

In the 20th century one of the key figures in Romanian violin music was Grigoraș Dinicu (1889–1949), who combined folk and academic music traditions. A graduate of the Bucharest Conservatory, he maintained ties with lăutari circles while performing as a classical concert musician. Dinicu became known as the author and performer of virtuosic pieces in folk style; his Hora staccato entered the international violin repertoire. Dinicu’s influence is also noted in art-music composers and performers, including George Enescu, in whose works (for example, the Romanian Rhapsodies) intonational and rhythmic features of folk violin music are evident. Dinicu also produced a violin version of the tune Ciocârlia, whose authorship is attributed to his grandfather Angheluș Dinicu.^[54]

The first attempt to study the Romanian folk violin was Teodor Burada’s Originea violinei şi perfecţionarea ei (1876).^[70] In the first half of the 20th century, violin music of Romanian lăutari was recorded and studied by Béla Bartók and Constantin Brăiloiu. Their collections are partly available online through ethnographic museums in Budapest and Geneva.^[71][72]

Tiberiu Alexandru wrote several major syntheses on the subject: Instrumentele muzicale ale poporului romîn (1956; section "Violin and viola"), the article Vioara ca instrument muzical popular (1957), and an expanded republication in 1978. The book also contains transcriptions of violin pieces, and the 1978 article includes a list of solo recordings by violinists issued by Electrecord.^[74][75][76]

Speranța Rădulescu conducted field research documenting traditional musicians from different Romanian regions, supporting the preservation of disappearing styles and repertoires; many recordings were released on Electrecord, Smithsonian Folkways, and Ethnophonie.^[77][78][79]

In the postwar period in the Moldavian SSR, "concert tarafs" began to form for stage performance, in contrast to traditional lăutari tarafs tied to customs and rites. Such ensembles were often attached to state concert institutions; sizes ranged from 4–5 musicians to 7–10, with a leader typically playing violin or accordion. By the 1970s, concert taraf style became more eclectic and less connected with traditional lăutărească music; use of notation and arrangements limited improvisation. Their repertoire included arranged versions of instrumental and dance music, as well as folk songs.^[80]

Another form was the folk-music orchestra created in the 1960s–1970s within state concert institutions. Ensembles expanded to 15–25 musicians, a conductor role was fixed, and most performers had academic training; folklore was performed in arranged and stylized form, with rhythmic and structural features simplified and made more rigid.^[80]

In the same period, Romania also created large orchestras (up to 100 lăutari) on the Soviet model, including the Orchestra "Barbu Lăutaru" of the George Enescu State Philharmonic (founded 1949), featuring violinists such as Victor Predescu, Nicu Stănescu, and Ionel Budișteanu. These orchestras helped preserve some traditional instruments; at the same time, officially promoted music lost improvisational character and regional distinctions became less pronounced.^[81][82]

Alongside concert and orchestral forms, traditional lăutari tarafs also survived, with the violin retaining the leading function. In 2020 Romania nominated this ensemble tradition for inscription on UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.^[83]

The influence of Romanian lăutari violin tradition on 20th‑century classical music is traced, for example, in the work of George Enescu. It manifested less in direct borrowing of folk themes than as transfer of characteristic violin techniques and sound production into an academic context. A key example is his Violin Sonata No. 3, Op. 25 (dans le caractère populaire roumain).^[vii] Enescu’s pupil Yehudi Menuhin called this work "the greatest achievement of musical notation" he had encountered, emphasizing the difficulty of fixing in notation violin techniques and intonational nuances rooted in oral tradition. Analyses of archival recordings of Enescu himself show that the folk violin influence appears especially in glissando and portamento, flexible intonation, free rhythmic treatment, and attempts to go beyond notational constraints while preserving the sonata-cycle structure.^[84]

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, elements of lăutari violin practice became a subject of scholarly and pedagogical literature. Several monographs and instructional manuals analyze lăutari technique – bowings, ornamentation, modal-intonational systems, and improvisation. These works address ethnomusicologists and musicians who use folk techniques in academic or cross-genre contexts and help transmit elements of oral tradition outside its natural context.^[85][86][87]

• Romanian traditional music

Commentary

References

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