Serbian Orthodox Church

The Serbian Orthodox Church (SOC; Serbian: Српска православна црква, СПЦ, Srpska pravoslavna crkva, SPC) is one of the autocephalous (ecclesiastically independent) Eastern Orthodox Christian churches.^[2][3]

The majority of the population in Serbia, Montenegro and Republika Srpska of Bosnia and Herzegovina are baptised members of the Serbian Orthodox Church. It is organised into metropolitanates and eparchies, located primarily in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Croatia. Other congregations are located in the Serb diaspora. The Serbian patriarch serves as first among equals in his church. The current patriarch is Porfirije, enthroned on 19 February 2021.^[4]

The church achieved autocephalous status in 1219,^[5] under the leadership of Saint Sava, becoming the independent Archbishopric of Žiča. Its status was elevated to that of a patriarchate in 1346,^[6] and was subsequently known as the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć. This patriarchate was persecuted by the Ottoman Empire in 1766,^[7] though several regional sections of the church continued to exist, most prominent among them being the Metropolitanate of Karlovci, in the Habsburg monarchy.^[8] After the restoration of Serbia, ecclesiastical autonomy was regained in 1831,^[9] and the autocephaly was recovered in 1879. The modern Serbian Orthodox Church was a result of the unification in 1920 of the Serbian Metropolitanate of Belgrade, Patriarchate of Karlovci, and Metropolitanate of Montenegro. The church itself is the only Serbian institution from Serbia which has operated uninterruptedly since the Middle Ages.^[10]

Christianity started to spread throughout Southeastern Europe during the first century AD. Early martyrs Florus and Laurus from the second century, who were murdered along with other 300 Christians in Ulpiana (modern-day Lipljan, Kosovo) are venerated as Christian saints. Bishop Irenaeus of Sirmium was also martyred, in 304. Emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306–337), born in Naissus (modern-day Niš), was the first Christian ruler of the Roman Empire. Several local bishops, seated in present-day Serbia, became prominent during the fourth century, such as Germinius of Sirmium, Ursacius of Singidunum and Secundianus of Singidunum (modern-day Belgrade), while several Councils were held in Sirmium (modern-day Sremska Mitrovica).^[11]

In 395, the Empire was divided, and its eastern half later became the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire. In 535, Emperor Justinian I created the Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima, centred in the emperor's birth-city of Justiniana Prima, near modern-day Lebane, Serbia. The archbishopric had ecclesiastical jurisdiction over all provinces of the Diocese of Dacia.^[12] By the beginning of the seventh century, Byzantine provincial and ecclesiastical order in the region was destroyed by invading Avars and Slavs. Church life was renewed in the same century in the provinces of Illyricum and Dalmatia after a more pronounced Christianisation of the Serbs and other Slavs by the Roman Patriarchate (RP).^[13] In the seventh and mid-eighth centuries the area was not under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.^[14]

The history of the early medieval Serbian Principality is recorded in the work De Administrando Imperio (DAI), compiled by Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (r. 913–959). The DAI drew information on the Serbs from, among others, a Serbian source.^[15] The Serbs were said to have received the protection of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641), and Porphyrogenitus stressed that the Serbs had always been under Imperial rule. According to DAI, the Serbs at first received their baptism from the RP.^[16] His account on the first Christianisation of the Serbs can be dated from 632 to 638; this might have been Porphyrogenitus' construction, or may have encompassed a limited group of chiefs, with lesser reception by the wider layers of the tribe.^[17] From the seventh until the mid-ninth century, the Serbs were under influence of the RP.^[18] The initial ecclesiastical affiliation with a specific diocese is uncertain, probably was not an Adriatic centre.^[19] Early medieval Serbs are accounted as Christian by the 870s,^[20] but it was a process that ended in the late ninth century during the time of Basil I,^[21] and medieval necropolises until the 13th century in the territory of modern Serbia show an "incomplete process of Christianisation" as local Christianity depended on the social structure (urban and rural).^[22]

The expansion of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (EP) over the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum is considered to have begun in 731 by Emperor Leo III when he annexed Sicily and Calabria,^[23][24] but whether the EP also expanded into the eastern parts of Illyricum and Dalmatia is uncertain and a matter of scholarly debate.^[25] The expansion most definitely happened since the mid-ninth century,^[14] when the Byzantine emperors and patriarch demanded that church administrative borders follow political borders.^[18] In the same century, the region was also politically contested between the Carolingian Empire and Byzantine Empire.^[26] The most influential and successful was Emperor Basil I, who actively worked on gaining control over all of Illyricum.^[27] Basil I likely sent at least one embassy to Prince Mutimir of Serbia,^[28] who decided to maintain the communion of Church in Serbia with the EP when Pope John VIII invited him to return to the jurisdiction of the bishopric of Sirmium (see also Archbishopric of Moravia) in a letter dated to May 873.^[29]

Alexis P. Vlasto argued that the Eparchy of Ras was founded during Mutimir's rule, as a bishopric of Serbia, at Ras with the Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul,^[31] as part of the general plan of establishing bishoprics in the Slavic lands of the Empire, confirmed by the Fourth Council of Constantinople in 879–880,^[31] most significantly related to the creation of the autonomous Archbishopric of Bulgaria (AoB) of which the RP lost jurisdiction.^[32][33] However, according to Predrag Komatina, there is no mention of any bishopric in Serbia. In early medieval Europe, the existence of a Christian church without a bishop in a specific land was not uncommon, and being placed under the Pannonian bishop implies that there was no local Serbian bishop at the time.^[34] Tibor Živković concluded, based on primary sources of the EP, that there was no information regarding the establishment of any new ecclesiastical centre and organisation in Serbia, that the Serbian ecclesiastical centre and capital was at Destinikon, while Ras in the mid-ninth century was only a border fort which became the ecclesiastical centre of the bishopric by 1019 or 1020.^[35] The imperial charter of Basil II from 1020 to the Archbishopric of Ohrid, in which the rights and jurisdictions were established, has the earliest mention of the bishopric of Ras, stating it belonged to the autocephalous AoB during the reigns of Peter I (927–969) and Samuel (977–1014).^[36][37] It was of a small size.^[38] It is considered that it was possibly founded by the Bulgarian emperor,^[39][40] but most probably it represented the latest date in which it could have been integrated into the AoB.^[41] The Ras Bishopric was probably part of the Bulgarian metropolis of Morava, but certainly not of Dyrrhachium.^[42] If it was in Serbian territory, it seems that the Church in Serbia or part of the territory of Serbia became linked and influenced by the AoB between 870 and 924.^[43]

With Christianisation in the ninth century, Christian names appear among the members of Serbian dynasties, like Petar (Peter), Stefan (Stephen), Pavle (Paul), and Zaharije (Zechariah).^[44] Prince Petar Gojniković (r. 892–917) was evidently a Christian ruler,^[44] and Christianity was presumably spreading in his time.^[45] Since Serbia bordered Bulgaria, Christian influences and perhaps missionaries came from there, increasing during the twenty-year peace.^[46] The Bulgarian annexation of Serbia in 924 was important for the future direction of the Serbian Church. By then, at the latest, Serbia must have received the Cyrillic script and Slavic religious texts, already familiar but perhaps not yet preferred to Greek.^[31]

Following his final subjugation of the Bulgarian state in 1018, Basil II, to underscore the Byzantine victory, established the Archbishopric of Ohrid by downgrading the Bulgarian Patriarchate to the rank of archbishopric. The now archbishopric remained an autocephalous church, separate from the EP. However, while the archbishopric was completely independent in any other aspect, its primate was selected by the emperor from a list of three candidates submitted by the local church synod. In three sigillia issued in 1020, Basil II gave extensive privileges to the new see.^[47] In the first and third charter of Basil II, the Bishopric of Serbia was mentioned, whilst in the second charter of Basil II, dated 1020, the Bishopric of Ras is mentioned, with its cathedra at the Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul.^[48][49]

The tenth- or eleventh-century Gospel Book Codex Marianus, written in Old Church Slavonic in the Glagolitic script, is one of the oldest known Slavic manuscripts. It was partly written in the Serbian redaction of Old Church Slavonic.^[50] Other early manuscripts include the 12th-century Gršković's fragment of the Acts of the Apostles and Mihanović's fragment of the Acts of the Apostles.^[51]

Serbian prince Rastko Nemanjić, son of Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja, took monastic vows at Mount Athos as Sava (Sabbas) in 1192.^[52][53] Three years later, his father joined him, taking monastic vows as Simeon. Father and son asked the Holy Community to found a Serbian religious centre at the abandoned site of Hilandar, which they renovated. This marked the beginning of a renaissance (in arts, literature and religion). Sava's father died at Hilandar in 1199 and was canonised as St. Simeon the Myroblyte.^[53] Sava stayed for some years, rising in rank, then returned to Serbia in 1207, taking with him the remains of his father, which he interred at Studenica Monastery, after reconciling his two quarrelling brothers Stefan and Vukan.^[54] Stefan asked him to remain in Serbia with his clerics, which he did, providing widespread pastoral care and education to the people. Sava founded several churches and monasteries, among them Žiča. In 1217, Stefan was proclaimed King of Serbia, and various questions regarding church reorganisation were opened.^[55]

St Sava returned to the Holy Mountain in 1217 or 1218, preparing for the formation of an autocephalous Serbian Church. He was consecrated in 1219 as the first Archbishop of the Serbian Church, and was given autocephaly by EP Manuel I of Constantinople, then in exile at Nicaea.^[56][57] In the same year, Sava published Zakonopravilo (St. Sava's Nomocanon). Thus the Serbs acquired both forms of independence: political and religious.^[58] After this, in Serbia, Sava stayed in Studenica and continued to educate the Serbian people in their faith. Later he called for a council outlawing the Bogomils, whom he considered heretics. Sava appointed several bishops, sending them around Serbia to organise their dioceses.^[59] To maintain his standing as the religious and social leader, he continued to travel among the monasteries and lands to educate the people. In 1221 a synod was held in Žiča monastery, condemning Bogomilism.^[60]

The following seats were newly created in the time of Saint Sava:

• Eparchy of Žiča (Raška) the seat of the Archbishop at Monastery of Žiča;
• Eparchy of Zeta (Zetska), seated at Monastery of Holy Archangel Michael on Miholjska Prevlaka island near Tivat and Kotor in Zeta region;
• Eparchy of Hum (Humska), seated at Monastery of the Holy Mother of God in Ston, in Hum region;
• Eparchy of Dabar (Dabarska), seated at Monastery of St. Nicholas in Dabar (region);
• Eparchy of Moravica (Moravička), seated at Monastery of St. Achillius in Moravica župa;
• Eparchy of Budimlja (Budimljanska), seated at Monastery of St. George in Budimlja region;
• Eparchy of Toplica (Toplička), seated at Monastery of St. Nicholas in Toplica region;
• Eparchy of Hvosno (Hvostanska), seated at Monastery of the Holy Mother of God in Hvosno region (northern Metohija).

Older eparchies under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Archbishop were:

• Eparchy of Ras (Raška), seated at Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul near Ras in Raška region;
• Eparchy of Lipljan (Lipljanska), seated at Lipljan in Kosovo;
• Eparchy of Prizren (Prizrenska), seated at Prizren in Metohija.

In 1229 or 1233, Sava went on a pilgrimage to Palestine and in Jerusalem he met with Patriarch Athanasius II. Sava saw Bethlehem where Jesus was born, the Jordan River where Christ was baptised, and the Great Lavra of Saint Sabbas the Sanctified (Mar Saba monastery), his namesake. Sava asked Athanasius II, his host, and the Great Lavra fraternity, led by hegoumenos Nicholas, if he could purchase two monasteries in the Holy Land. His request was accepted and he was offered the monasteries of Saint John the Theologian on Mount Sion and St. George's Monastery at Akona, both to be inhabited by Serbian monks. The icon Trojerucica (Three-handed Theotokos), a gift to the Great Lavra from St. John Damascene, was given to Sava and he, in turn, bequeathed it to Hilandar.

St Sava died in Veliko Tarnovo, capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire, during the reign of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. According to his Biography, he fell ill following the Divine Liturgy on the Feast of the Epiphany, 12 January 1235. Sava was visiting Veliko Tarnovo on his way back from the Holy Land, where he had founded a hospice for Syrian pilgrims in Jerusalem and arranged for Serbian monks to be welcomed in the established monasteries there. He died of pneumonia in the night between Saturday and Sunday, 14 January 1235, and was buried at the Cathedral of the Holy Forty Martyrs in Veliko Tarnovo where his body remained until 6 May 1237, when his sacred bones were moved to the monastery Mileševa in southern Serbia.

In 1253 the see was transferred to the Monastery of Peć by Archbishop Arsenije.^[61] The Serbian primates had since moved between the two.^[62] Sometime between 1276 and 1292 the Cumans burned Žiča Monastery, and King Stefan Milutin (1282–1321) renovated it in from 1292 to 1309, during the patriarchate of Jevstatije II.^[63] Between 1289 and 1290, the chief treasures of the ruined monastery, including the relics of Saint Jevstatije I, were transferred to Peć Monastery.^[64] During the rule of the same king, the Monastery of Gračanica was also renewed,^[65] and during the reign of King Stefan Uroš III (1321–1331), the Monastery of Dečani was built,^[66] under the supervision of Archbishop Danilo II.^[67]

The status of the Serbian Orthodox Church grew along with the expansion and heightened prestige of the Serbian Kingdom. After King Stefan Dušan assumed the imperial title of tsar, the Serbian Archbishopric was correspondingly raised to the rank of patriarchate in 1346. In the century that followed, the SOC achieved its greatest power and prestige. In the 14th century Serbian Orthodox clergy had the title of protos at Mount Athos.

On 16 April 1346 (Easter), Stefan Dušan convoked a grand assembly at Skopje, attended by the Serbian Archbishop Joanikije II, Archbishop Nicholas I of Ohrid,Simeon of Bulgaria and various religious leaders of Mount Athos. The assembly and clergy agreed on, and then ceremonially performed the raising of the autocephalous Serbian Archbishopric to the status of patriarchate. The Archbishop was from now on titled Serbian Patriarch, although some documents called him the Patriarch of Serbs and Greeks, with the seat at Peć. The new Patriarch Joanikije II solemnly crowned Stefan Dušan as "Emperor and autocrat of Serbs and Romans" (see Emperor of Serbs). The patriarchal status resulted in the elavation of bishoprics to metropolitanates, such as the Metropolitanate of Skopje. The patriarchate took over sovereignty on Athos and the Greek archbishoprics under the jurisdiction of the EP (the Archbishopric of Ohrid remained autocephalous), which resulted in Dušan's excommunication by EP Callistus I of Constantinople in 1350.^[68]

In 1375, an agreement between the SOC and the EP was reached.^[69] The 1389 Battle of Kosovo and its aftermath had a lasting influence on medieval legacy and later traditions of the SOC.^[70] In 1455, when the Ottoman Turks conquered the patriarchal seat in Peć, SP Arsenije II found temporary refuge in Smederevo, the capital city of the Serbian Despotate.^[71]

Among cultural, artistic and literary legacies created under the auspices of the SOC during the medieval period were hagiographies, known in Serbian as žitije, that were written as biographies of rulers, archbishops and saints from the 12th up to the 15th century.^[72][73][74]

The Ottoman Empire conquered the Serbian Despotate in 1459, the Bosnian Kingdom in 1463, Herzegovina in 1482 and Zeta in 1496. All of the conquered lands were divided into sanjaks. Although some Serbs converted to Islam, most continued their adherence to the SOC. The church itself continued to exist throughout the Ottoman period, though not without some disruption. After the death of SP Arsenije II in 1463, a successor was not elected. The patriarchate was thus de facto abolished, and the Serbian Church passed under the jurisdiction of Archbishopric of Ohrid and ultimately the EP which exercised jurisdiction over all Orthodox of the Ottoman Empire under the millet system. The process of falling under the rule of the Ohrid Church unfolded at the same pace as the Serbian lands were coming under Turkish rule. Where there was no Turkish authority, the archbishops of Ohrid could not extend their jurisdiction. There are several instances that point to the quite independent activity of certain Serbian bishops, who are mentioned without any indication that they were subject to the Archbishop of Ohrid. This applies, above all, to the Metropolitan of Zeta (until 1496), then to the Metropolitan of Herzegovina, who resided in the Mileševa Monastery (until 1482), and to the Metropolitan of Belgrade, who was under Hungarian rule (until 1526).^[75]

After several failed attempts, made from c. 1530 up to 1541 by Metropolitan Pavle of Smederevo to regain the autocephaly by seizing the throne of Peć and proclaiming himself not only Archbishop of Peć, but also Serbian patriarch, the Serbian patriarchate was finally restored in 1557 under the Sultan Suleiman I, thanks to the mediation of pasha Mehmed Sokolović, who was a Serb by birth. His cousin, one of the Serbian bishops Makarije Sokolović was elected patriarch in Peć. The restoration of the patriarchate was of great importance for the Serbs because it helped the spiritual unification of all Serbs in the Ottoman Empire. The Patriarchate of Peć also included some dioceses in western Bulgaria.^[76]

During the reign of SP Jovan Kantul (1592–1614), the Ottoman Turks took the relics of Saint Sava from Mileševa to Vračar hill in Belgrade where they were subsequently burned by Sinan Pasha on a stake to intimidate the Serbs in case of revolts (see 1594 Banat Uprising). The Temple of Saint Sava would later be built on the place where his relics were burned.^[77]

After consequent Serbian uprisings against Ottoman rule in which Serbian clergy had a leading role, the Ottomans abolished the patriarchate once again in 1766.^[7] The Serb-inhabited territories came under EP jurisdiction.

During this period, Christians across the Balkans were under pressure to convert to Islam to avoid severe taxes (such as the Jizya) imposed by the Ottomans in retaliation for uprisings and continued resistance. The success of Islamisation was limited to certain areas, with the majority of the Serb population keeping its Christian faith despite the negative consequences. To avoid them, numerous Serbs migrated with their hierarchs to the Habsburg monarchy where their autonomy had been granted. In 1708 an autonomous Serbian Orthodox Metropolitanate of Karlovci was created, which would later become a patriarchate (1848–1920).^[78]

During the reign of Maria Theresa (1740–1780), several assemblies of Orthodox Serbs were held, sending their petitions to the Habsburg court. In response to that, several royal acts were issued, such as Regulamentum privilegiorum (1770) and Regulamentum Illyricae Nationis (1777), both of them replaced by the royal Declaratory Rescript of 1779, that regulated various important questions, from the procedure regarding the elections of Serbian Orthodox bishops in the Habsburg Monarchy, to the management of dioceses, parishes and monasteries. The act was upheld in force until it was replaced by the "Royal Rescript" issued on 10 August 1868.^[79]

The church's close association with Serbian resistance to Ottoman rule led to Eastern Orthodoxy becoming inextricably linked with Serbian national identity and the new Serbian monarchy that emerged from 1815 onwards. The church in the Principality of Serbia gained its autonomy in 1831 and was organised as the Metropolitanate of Belgrade, remaining under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.^[80] Serbia gained full political (de jure) independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, and soon after those negotiations were initiated with the EP, resulting in canonical recognition of full ecclesiastical independence (autocephaly) for the Metropolitanate of Belgrade in 1879.^[81]

At the same time, Serbian Orthodox eparchies in Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under the supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the EP, but after the Austro-Hungarian occupation (1878) of those provinces, local eparchies gained internal autonomy, regulated by the Convention of 1880, signed by representatives of Austro-Hungarian authorities and the EP.^[82][83]

In the southern eparchies, that remained under Ottoman rule, Serbian metropolitans were appointed by the end of the 19th century.^[84] Thus, by the beginning of the 20th century, several distinctive Serbian ecclesiastical provinces existed, including the Patriarchate of Karlovci in the Habsburg monarchy, the Metropolitanate of Belgrade in the Kingdom of Serbia, and the Metropolitanate of Montenegro in the Principality of Montenegro (Kingdom of Montenegro after 1910).

During the Serbian campaign of World War I (1914–1918), the SOC suffered massive casualties.^[85]

After the liberation and political unification achieved through creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1918), all Orthodox Serbs were united under one ecclesiastical authority, and all Orthodox ecclesiastical provinces and eparchies were united into the Serbian Orthodox Church in 1920.^[10] The first primate of the united SOC was SP Dimitrije (r. 1920–1930). The SOC gained great political and social influence in the inter-war Kingdom of Yugoslavia, during which time it successfully campaigned against the Yugoslav government's intentions of signing a concordat with the Holy See.

The SOC kept under its jurisdiction the Eparchy of Buda in Hungary. In 1921, the SOC created a new eparchy for the Czech lands, headed by Bishop Gorazd Pavlík. At the same time, the Serbian Church among the diaspora was reorganised, and an eparchy for the United States and Canada was created.^[86] In 1931 another diocese was created, called the Eparchy of Mukačevo and Prešov, for the Eastern Orthodox Christians in Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia.

During the Second World War the SOC suffered severely from persecutions by the occupying powers and the rabidly anti-Serbian Ustaše regime of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), which sought to create a "Croatian Orthodox Church" which some Orthodox Serbs were forced to join, while many other Serbs were killed, expelled or forced to convert to Catholicism during the Serbian Genocide; bishops and priests were singled out for persecution, and many churches were damaged or destroyed.^[87] Out of the 577 Serbian Orthodox priests, monks and other religious dignitaries in the NDH, between 214 and 217 were killed and 334 were exiled to German-occupied Serbia.^[88] Some of them were brutally tortured and mutilated by the Ustaše prior to being killed,^[89] such as Branko Dobrosavljević, Damjan Štrbac, and Đorđe Bogić, all of whom would later be canonised. In the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 71 Orthodox priests were killed by the Ustaše, 10 by the Partisans, 5 by the Germans, and 45 died in the first decade after the end of WWII.^[90]

After the war, the church was suppressed by the communist government of Josip Broz Tito, which viewed it with suspicion due to the church's links with the leadership from the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and the Serbian nationalist Chetnik movement. According to Denis Bećirović, aside from the League of Communists of Yugoslavia's ideological differences with the church, this negative attitude was also influenced by the fact that some priests during the war supported the Chetnik movement which are mentioned in Documents of the Commission for Religious Affairs where is stated that among other things, that the majority of priests during the war supported and cooperated with the movement of Draža Mihailović, and that the Church spread "hostile propaganda" against the Yugoslav Partisans and appointed persons in the administration of church institutions who were convicted of collaborating with the occupier.^[90] Along with other ecclesiastical institutions of all denominations, the church was subject to strict controls by the Yugoslav state, which prohibited the teaching of religion in schools, confiscated church property and discouraged religious activity among the population.^[91]

In 1963, the Serbian Church among the Serb diaspora was reorganised, and the eparchy for the United States and Canada was divided into three separate eparchies. At the same time, some internal divisions sparked in thediaspora, leading to the creation of the separate "Free Serbian Orthodox Church" under Bishop Dionisije. The schism was healed in 1991, resulting in the establishment of the Metropolitanate of New Gračanica, within the united Serbian Orthodox Church.^[92] In 1983, a fourth eparchy in North America was created specifically for Canadian churches: the Serbian Orthodox Diocese of Canada.^[93]

The gradual demise of Yugoslav communism and the rise of rival nationalist movements during the 1980s also led to a marked religious revival throughout Yugoslavia, not least in Serbia. SP Pavle II supported the opposition to Slobodan Milošević in the 1990s.

Since the establishment of the Yugoslav federal unit of Macedonia in 1944, communist authorities restricted the activities of SOC in that region, favoring the creation of a separate church body.^[94] The Macedonian Orthodox Church was created in 1967, effectively as an offshoot of the SOC in what was then the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, as part of the Yugoslav drive to build up a Macedonian national identity. This was strongly resisted by the SOC, which did not recognise the independence of its Macedonian counterpart.^[95]

Similar plans for the creation of an independent church in the Yugoslav federal unit of Montenegro were also considered, but those plans were not put into action before 1993, when the creation of the Montenegrin Orthodox Church was proclaimed. The organisation was not legally registered before 2000, receiving no support from the Eastern Orthodox communion, and succeeding to attract only a minority of Eastern Orthodox adherents in Montenegro.^[96][97]

The Yugoslav wars greatly impacted the Serbian Orthodox Church. During this time, the church was embroiled during Slobodan Milošević's policies and the wars in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo.^{[98][99][100]}

Many Orthodox churches in Croatia were damaged or destroyed during the war in Croatia (1991–1995). The clergy, including bishops, and most laypeople of the eparchies of Zagreb, of Karlovac, of Slavonia and of Dalmatia became refugees; the latter three were almost completely abandoned after the exodus of the Serbs from Croatia in 1995 due to Operation Storm. The Eparchy of Dalmatia also had its see temporarily moved to Knin after the self-proclaimed proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina was established. The Еparchy of Slavonia had its see moved from Pakrac to Daruvar. After Operation Storm, Krupa Monastery was particularly damaged, and Krka Monastery was looted.

The Eparchies of Bihać and Petrovac, Dabar-Bosnia and Zvornik and Tuzla were also dislocated due to the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The see of Dabar-Bosnia was temporarily moved to Sokolac, and the see of Zvornik-Tuzla to Bijeljina. Over a hundred church-owned objects in the Zvornik-Tuzla Еparchy were destroyed or damaged during the war.^[101] Many monasteries and churches in the Eparchy of Zahumlje were also destroyed as part of the widespread devastation of Orthodox religious heritage.^[102] Numerous faithful from these eparchies also became refugees during the conflict.^[103]

By 1998, the situation had stabilised in both countries. The clergy and many of the faithful returned; most of the property of the SOC was returned to normal use and damaged and destroyed properties were restored.^[104] The process of rebuilding several churches is still underway, notably the cathedral of the Eparchy of Upper Karlovac in Karlovac.^[105]

Owing to the Kosovo War, after 1999 numerous Serbian Orthodox holy sites in Kosovo left occupied only by clergy. Since the arrival of NATO troops in June 1999, 156 Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries have been damaged or destroyed.^[106] In the aftermath of the 2004 unrest in Kosovo, 35 Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries were burned or destroyed by Albanian mobs, and thousands of Serbs were forced to move from Kosovo due to the numerous attacks by Kosovo Albanians on Serbian churches and Serbs.^[107]

The process of church reorganisation among the Serb diaspora and full reintegration of the Metropolitanate of New Gračanica was completed from 2009 to 2011. By that, full structural unity of SOC institutions in the diaspora was achieved.

According to the World Council of Churches and other sources there are 8 million adherents.^[108][109] Higher estimates include around 9^[110] or 12 million adherents.^[111]

Based on the official census results in countries that encompass the territorial canonical jurisdiction of the Serbian Orthodox Church (the Serb autochthonous region of the Western Balkans), there are more than 8 million adherents of the church. Orthodoxy is the largest single religious faith in Serbia with 5,387,426 adherents (81% of the population) according to the 2022 census,^[112] and in Montenegro with around 320,000 (51% of the population). It is the second-largest faith in Bosnia and Herzegovina with 31.2% of the population, and in Croatia with 4.4% of the population. Figures for eparchies abroad (Western Europe, North America, and Australia) are unknown although some estimates can be reached based on the size of the Serb diaspora, which numbers over two million people.

The head of the Serbian Orthodox Church, the patriarch, also serves as the head (metropolitan) of the Metropolitanate of Belgrade and Karlovci. The current patriarch, Porfirije, was inaugurated on 19 February 2021. Serbian Orthodox patriarchs use the style His Holiness the Archbishop of Peć, Metropolitan of Belgrade and Karlovci, Serbian Patriarch.

The highest body of the SOC is the Bishops' Council. It consists of the patriarch, the metropolitans, bishops, and vicars. It meets annually – between March and May. The Bishops' Council makes important decisions for the church and elects the patriarch.

The executive body of the SOC is the Holy Synod. It has five members: four bishops and the patriarch.^[113] The Holy Synod takes care of the everyday operation of the Church, holding meetings on a regular basis.

The territory of the Serbian Orthodox Church is divided into:^[114][115]

• 1 patriarchal eparchy, headed by the Serbian Patriarch
• 4 eparchies that are honorary metropolitanates, headed by metropolitans
• 35 eparchies (dioceses), headed by bishops

Dioceses are further divided into episcopal deaneries, each consisting of several church congregations or parishes. Church congregations consist of one or more parishes. A parish is the smallest church unit – a communion of Orthodox faithful congregating at the Holy Eucharist with the parish priest at their head.

The Constitution of the Serbian Orthodox Church (Serbian: Устав Српске православне цркве, romanized: Ustav Srpske pravoslavne crkve) is the basic ecclesiastical legal act of the church. The first and only Constitution of the Church was adopted on 16 November 1931.^[116] Two years earlier, the Law on the Serbian Orthodox Church was adopted.^[117] Also, the election of the SP was prescribed by the state Law on the Election of the Patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church.^[118]

Two years after the end of World War II, and after changes in the church's relations with the state, the Holy Synod of Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church made amendments to the Constitution, promulgated for the first time in Glasnik, the official newspaper of the SOC. The second edition of the Constitution was promulgated in 1957.^[119]

Since then, the Constitution has been amended several times by constitutional decisions of the Holy Synod in order to achieve the mission of the church as successfully as possible. Namely, the church constitution should not be equated with the state constitution and defined as the highest general legal act in the church. The Holy Synod makes decisions in organisational terms, and any such decision automatically means an amendment to the current Constitution. Even a two-thirds majority is not needed to make such decisions. On 2 July 2012 a constitutive session of the Commission of the Holy Synod of Bishops for the revision of the SOC Constitution was held, which was formed 16 June 2011. It was headed by the Metropolitan of Montenegro and the Littoral Amfilohije as president. Its task is to collect and systematise all the decisions of the Holy Synod of Bishops of the constitutional character from the previous period in order to be adequately included in the new Constitution.^[120]

In addition to the Constitution, within the SOC itself there are other general ecclesiastical acts which, based on canonical tradition, regulate internal organisational of Serbian Orthodox eparchies (dioceses) around the world.

According to the Constitution, ecclesiastical authority is spiritual, ecclesiastical-disciplinary and ecclesiastical-judicial, and canonically belongs only to the hierarchy. Hierarchy exercises ecclesiastical authority through its representatives and bodies. The government in the community with the clergy and the people through its representatives and bodies, regulates and manages property, endowment (foundation), fund, as well as other matters provided by the Constitution.^[121]

The Constitution stipulates that the structure of the Serbian Orthodox Church is church-hierarchical and church-self-governing. There are the following Church authorities, bodies and organs:^[122]

• Patriarch, Holy Synod of Bishops, Great Ecclesiastical Court, Patriarchal Board of Directors;
• Diocesan archbishop, Diocesan Ecclesiastical Court, Diocesan Council, Diocesan Board of Directors;
• Archbishop's vicar;
• Parish;
• Church-municipal council, church-municipal Board of Directors;
• Abbot and fraternity of the monastery.

The SOC is episcopal; its main administrative division is diocese both in church-hierarchical and church-self-governing terms. Dioceses are further divided into archdioceses, each of which consists of several church communities and parishes. The parish is the smallest unit in the church organisation. It is a community of believers that gathers at the Divine Liturgy and other services, led by the parish priest.

The Serbian Orthodox Church upholds the Eastern Orthodox theology, shared by all Eastern Orthodox Churches and based on doctrinal accomplishments of the First seven ecumenical councils. It is characterised by monotheistic trinitarianism, a belief in the incarnation of the Logos (Son of God), a balancing of cataphatic theology with apophatic theology, a hermeneutic defined by Sacred Tradition, and a therapeutic soteriology. In the fields of ecclesial organisation and administration, it upholds traditions and principles of Eastern Orthodox ecclesiology.^[123]

Liturgical traditions and practices of the Serbian Orthodox Church are based on Eastern Orthodox worship.^[124] Services cannot properly be conducted by a single person but require the presence of at least one other participant. While the full cycle of services is usually celebrated daily only in larger churches and cathedrals as well as in monasteries, smaller parish churches often hold services only on weekends and major feast days. The Divine Liturgy is the celebration of the Eucharist. It is not celebrated on weekdays during the preparatory season of Great Lent. Communion is consecrated on Sundays and distributed during the week at the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts. Services, especially the Divine Liturgy, can only be performed once a day on any particular altar.^{[125][126][127]}

The Serbian Orthodox Church generally maintains conservative positions on sexual ethics, family life, and bioethical issues.^{[128][129][130]}

The Church teaches that sexual relations are allowed only within heterosexual marriage, which is regarded as a sacramental union oriented toward mutual love and procreation. Chastity is considered a universal Christian virtue expressed differently in marriage and monastic life. Premarital and extramarital sexual relations are regarded as incompatible with Orthodox moral teaching.^[129][131] Marriage is understood as a lifelong union between one man and one woman, while divorce is generally viewed as a pastoral concession rather than an ideal form.^[129][132]

The Serbian Orthodox Church does not recognize same-sex unions as marriage and considers homosexual sexual activity incompatible with Orthodox moral teaching. It has repeatedly expressed opposition to Pride parades, characterizing such events as incompatible with traditional Christian morality and as public promotion of "non-traditional" sexual behavior in the public sphere.^[123][133]

Views on contraception within Orthodox theology are not dogmatically uniform, but the Serbian Orthodox Church generally discourages artificial contraception when it is perceived to separate sexual activity from its procreative purpose, although pastoral practice may vary.^[131] Abortion is strongly condemned as a grave moral sin and is regarded as the deliberate taking of human life from conception.^[128]

Euthanasia and assisted suicide are rejected on the basis that human life is sacred and belongs to God. The Church advocates palliative care, prayer, and pastoral accompaniment of the dying.^[134]

Serbian church architecture developed within the broader tradition of Byzantine architecture, while gradually creating distinctive regional forms. The earliest school of Serbian church architecture was the Raška style, which flourished from the late 12th to the late 13th century and combined Byzantine spatial concepts with elements of Romanesque architecture.^[135] Characterized by monumental single-nave churches with domes and austere marble façades, the style is exemplified by monastery churches of Studenica, Žiča, and Sopoćani.^[136]

During the 14th century, Serbian architecture evolved into the Serbo-Byzantine style, reflecting the growing political and cultural influence of the Byzantine Empire upon the expanding Serbian state. Distinguished by complex cross-in-square plans, multiple domes, rich exterior decoration, and an increased emphasis on verticality, the style reached its peak during the reigns of the Nemanjić dynasty rulers. Representative examples include monastery churches of Gračanica, Patriarchate of Peć, and Visoki Dečani, the latter combining Byzantine and Western Gothic influences.^[137]

The final phase of medieval Serbian church architecture is represented by the Morava style, which developed after the fall of the Serbian Empire and flourished between the late 14th and mid-15th centuries. Morava churches are distinguished by highly elaborate stone ornamentation, decorative façades, richly carved rosettes, and tetraconch ground plans. Notable examples include monastery churches of Ravanica, Ljubostinja, Kalenić, and Manasija.

In the coastal regions of the eastern Adriatic, particularly in Montenegro, Dalmatia, and Herzegovina, Serbian Orthodox churches often developed distinctive forms shaped by prolonged interaction with Romanesque, Gothic, and Venetian architectural traditions. These churches are generally smaller in scale and frequently incorporate features characteristic of the Adriatic littoral, such as stone bell-gables, finely dressed limestone façades, and elements derived from local Mediterranean architecture.

Following the Great Migrations of the Serbs into the Habsburg monarchy during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Serbian church architecture underwent significant transformation under Central European influences. The dominant style became Baroque, particularly in present-day Vojvodina and other Habsburg lands inhabited by Serbs. These churches were typically characterized by longitudinal single-nave layouts, prominent western bell towers, and richly decorated iconostases influenced by Baroque artistic traditions. Representative examples include cathedrals of St. Nicholas in Sremski Karlovci, Dormition of the Theotokos in Szentendre (Hungary), and Ascension of the Lord in Timișoara (Romania).

During the late 19th century and the especially during the interwar period, architects increasingly turned to medieval Serbian models, giving rise to the Serbo-Byzantine Revival style. Inspired primarily by the architecture of Gračanica Monastery and other monuments of the Nemanjić period, this revival produced some of the most prominent Serbian churches of the modern era, including the Church of Saint Sava and the Church of Saint Mark, both in Belgrade, as well as Church of Saint Spyridon in Trieste (Italy). Since the late 20th century, Serbo-Byzantine Revival style has become the predominant style for newly constructed Serbian Orthodox churches throughout Serbia and other territories under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Orthodox Church. As a result, even in regions such as Vojvodina, where Baroque church architecture had traditionally prevailed, most new churches have been built in the Serbo-Byzantine Revival style. This trend has been praised for reaffirming continuity with medieval Serbian architectural heritage, while some architectural historians and conservation specialists have criticized it for reducing regional architectural diversity and overlooking local historical traditions.^[138][139]

The Serbian Orthodox Church possesses its own flag and coat of arms, both introduced in 1931. The flag is a Serb tricolour (a horizontal tricolour of red, blue, and white) with a golden Serbian cross in the centre.^[140] The coat of arms consists of a blue-and-white shield bearing the Tower of Saint Sava at Hilandar Monastery on the dexter (right) side and the Church of the Apostles in the Patriarchate of Peć Monastery on the sinister (left) side. In the center is a golden Serbian cross. The shield is surmounted by a golden episcopal crown and draped with the panagia of Saint Sava. Behind the shield is a patriarchal mantle of porphyry color adorned with a double golden cross on the right and an episcopal crozier on the left.

The Church also awards the Order of St. Sava, an ecclesiastical decoration, which is conferred upon individuals and institutions for outstanding contributions to the Church, religious life, education, culture, and humanitarian work.^[141]

The Church is engaged in a range of charitable, humanitarian, and social welfare activities. Its principal humanitarian organization is Čovekoljublje ("Philanthropy"), a charitable foundation established in 1991 in response to the humanitarian crisis accompanying the breakup of Yugoslavia. During the Yugoslav Wars, it organized extensive humanitarian aid campaigns for refugees, often relying on donations collected through Serbian Orthodox parishes and organizations in the Serb diaspora. Humanitarian assistance included food, clothing, medicine, and financial support for displaced persons and communities affected by the conflicts. Since the early 2000s, the organization expanded its activities to include social care, support for vulnerable groups, and volunteer initiatives.^[142] The Church also supports a network of soup kitchens, particularly in Serb enclaves in Kosovo, where several kitchens provide daily meals and other forms of assistance to socially vulnerable persons.^[143]

The Serbian Orthodox Church maintains a network of educational institutions dedicated to theological training and religious education. These institutions play an important role in the preservation of Orthodox theology, clergy formation, and the religious and cultural heritage of the Serbian Orthodox faithful.

Higher theological studies are conducted at the Faculty of Orthodox Theology in Belgrade and the Faculty of Orthodox Theology "Saint Basil of Ostrog" in Foča (Bosnia and Herzegovina).^[144][145] The Church also operates 9 seminaries (eight in its canonical territory, out of which 4 are in Serbia; and one in the United States), which provide secondary-level theological education and prepare candidates for the priesthood. In addition, it oversees two secondary schools (gymnasiums) in Croatia and Montenegro, as well as three elementary schools serving Serb communities oversees (two in the United States and one in Australia).

The Serbian Orthodox Church operates a diverse network of media outlets that serve its religious, educational, and cultural activities. Its most prominent outlet is television channel Hram (available on cable, satellite, and IPTV), which broadcasts liturgies, religious education, cultural programs, and news related to church life. The Church publishes the monthly Pravoslavlje while the children's magazine Svetosavsko zvonce is distributed to children enrolled at Orthodox religion classes organized in public elementary and secondary schools.

Numerous dioceses maintain their own radio stations, including Radio Slovo Ljubve (Archdiocese of Belgrade and Karlovci), Radio Svetigora (Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral), Radio Tavor (Eparchy of Bačka), Radio Glas (Eparchy of Niš), Radio Istočnik (Eparchy of Valjevo), Radio Zlatousti (Eparchy of Šumadija), and Radio Mileševa (Eparchy of Mileševa).^[146] In addition to traditional media, the Church disseminates information through social media platforms.

• List of heads of the Serbian Orthodox Church
• List of eparchies of the Serbian Orthodox Church
• List of Serbian Orthodox monasteries
• List of Serbian saints
• Timeline of the Serbian Orthodox Church
• Archive of the Serbian Orthodox Church

• Srpsko Blago | Serbian Treasure site – photos, QTVR and movies of Serbian monasteries and Serbian Orthodox art
• Article on the Serbian Orthodox Church by Ronald Roberson on the CNEWA website
• Article on the medieval history of the Serbian Orthodox Church in the repository of the Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences (in German)

• Official website