Old Wenchi

Wenchi or Wankyi was a Bono-speaking Akan polity in present-day Ghana. Centered in the forest–savanna transition zone, the state emerged from early settlements at Bonoso and later established its capital at Ahwene Koko. By the early seventeenth century, Wenchi was recognized as a gold-producing and cloth-manufacturing state engaged in regional trade. In the early eighteenth century, it was defeated by the Asante Empire and became a tributary polity.

According to local tradition, the name Wenchi (Wankyi) derives from the wankyie or panta, a pig-like animal believed to have burrowed into the earth and unearthed the ancestors at Bonoso. The present form Wenchi is regarded as a later corruption of the earlier name. An alternative explanation derives the name from wan akyi, meaning “beyond brightness,” referring to an abode in a hole beyond the realm of light or brightness.^[1]

The Wenchi people claim that their ancestors emerged from a hole in the ground at Bonoso near the source of the Ayasu stream, fourteen kilometres south of present-day Wenchi. According to the tradition, the ancestors had remained in the earth from time immemorial until a pig-like animal known as the wankyie or panta burrowed down and unearthed them. The Akyemehene, the chief royal spokesman, is said to have led them with an ancient staff. Their leader was the Queen-Mother Asase-ba-ode-nsee, whose name translates as “child of Mother Earth whose origins date to the beginning." The Paramount Chief who was to accompany the people is said to have retreated into the hole after being offended by a man named Nkrumah, described as the ninth child of his mother. After the incident, the Queen-Mother ruled without a Paramount Chief. Apart from her clan, six other clans are believed to have emerged from the hole: Akyease, Awerempe, Akwandu, Sisiraese, Ababaa, and Twemma. The leaders of the clans served as sub-chiefs of the state. All clans claiming descent from the hole are collectively known as Yefri, meaning “we come from the hole.”^[2]

According to J. Boachie-Ansah, there are similarities between the origin traditions of Wenchi and Bono Manso. Both traditions describe ancestors emerging from a hole, the withdrawal of the first ruler into it, and restrictions on farming around its entrance. Thee similarities are interpreted either as the spread of shared traditions between neighboring states or as evidence of a distant common ancestry.^[3] Excavations revealed that Bonoso was occupied from at least the 7th century CE and continued for over four centuries, making the location earliest known Bono settlements in the forest–savanna transition zone. ^[4]

The earliest European reference to Wenchi appears on a 1629 Dutch map, which depicts the state as rich in gold and noted for its cloth industry, and records trade links with the "Akani".^[5]

According to oral and documentary sources, the Wenchi capital of Ahwene Koko was attacked by the Asante Empire during the reign of Osei Tutu. The dating of the invasion is debated. Ozanne proposed a date between 1690 and 1700, while Daaku, using Dutch records, placed the destruction between 1711 and 1715, shortly before the Asante campaign against the Kingdom of Aowin in 1715.^[6]

Tradition maintains that the wealth of Wenchi in gold, beads, and other valuables attracted Asante attention.^[7] One version states that the Asante informed Wenchi that they intended to attack Dormaa at Abesim and advised that a barrier be erected along the road to Ahwene Koko to distinguish it from the route to Abesim. The Wenchi complied, but Gyanso Mensah, angered by this action, is said to have removed the barrier and placed it on the road to Abesim. The Asante army therefore followed what they believed to be the unblocked road to Abesim and attacked Ahwene Koko instead. Another account states that the invasion was a surprise attack that took place on a Thursday (Kuru Yaw) during the forty-two-day cycle, when many inhabitants were away farming in preparation for the Friday day of rest. The horn language of Wenchi preserves a reference to this event, during the invasion the Queen-Mother, Nana Afoa Dankoto, was captured and taken to Kumasi. The state was defeated and looted. An oath of the Wenchihene, known as the “Kuru Yaw a gya tua no” or great oath of Thursday, alludes to the occasion. Boachie-Ansah believes that internal weaknesses may also have contributed to the defeat. It is suggested that earlier Asante migrants or traders in Wenchi may have facilitated the invasion, and that the state was not fully prepared for war. The absence of a standing army and the less centralized military organization of Wenchi may have placed it at a disadvantage against the more organized Asante forces.^[8] Wenchi became a tributary state of Asante. Ahwene Koko was abandoned, and people dispersed to settlements like Enchi, Nsuawem, Dadeso, Sefwi Wiawso, and Nkorful in the Western Region. Others fled to Nkwanta, Asante Akyim, to modern Wenchi near Drobo, and unspecified areas in Fantiland. The state was depopulated, and subsequent resettlement involved the incorporation of migrants into indigenous lineages and offices. Following subjugation, Wenchi fought in several Asante campaigns against external enemies. Its alignment with Asante later contributed to hostility with Techiman when the latter opposed Asante authority.^[9]

After the defeat of Ahwene Koko, several migrant groups entered the Wenchi area. One group came from Adanse Akorokeyere and settled near the Akete stream on the route to Nkyiraa, about thirty kilometers north-east of Wenchi town. They became known as the Aketeagya group. According to Boachie-Ansah, the movement was linked to the period after the relocation from Ahwene Koko to Kaam and likely occurred after 1715. Another group arrived from Bono in present-day Ivory Coast at an unspecified time. Additional migrants came from Kwadwokrom in Kumasi, Techiman, Nkoranza, and Denkyira. Those from Techiman are identified as the ancestors of the Gyensase group, which holds the Akwamu stool. Another immigrant group became known as the Bokoro group.^[10]

In 1948, the site of Ahwene Koko was resettled when the Wenchihene, Nana Kwame Abrefah V, allocated the area to a group of Wenchi people and Ashanti immigrants. Under the leadership of Nana Yaw Fosu, the settlers engaged in hunting, farming, and rubber-tapping. The new village was nostalgically named “Ahwene” after the former Wenchi capital.^[11]

Wenchi shared boundaries with the Mo polity to the north, Nsawkaw or Begho to the north-west, the Bono State to the east, Duayaw Nkwanta to the south, and Nsotare to the south-west. The Subin, Tain, Tano, and Ayakoma rivers are said to have formed natural boundaries between the state and neighbouring areas. A stream near the present village of Aworowa marked the boundary between Wenchi and Bono. Sunyani and Chiraa, now outside the traditional area, are also said to have once formed part of the Wenchi state. The traditions describe a wide territorial extent but only a few settlements are mentioned as having been occupied. Apart from Bonoso, Ahwene Koko, Awadie, and Twemma, other settlements are said to have been founded shortly before or after the Asante invasion of Ahwene Koko. Other traditions claim that ancient settlements once formed part of the state but are no longer clearly remembered. Abemman, located near Domase in the Sunyani area, is said to have been contemporary with Ahwene Koko. Another settlement called Dankoto, near the present village of the same name, is also described as an ancient site. When interviewed by Boachie-Ansah, informants were unable to provide detailed information about these locations, suggesting that some earlier settlements may gradually have been forgotten in the traditions. ^[12]

Bonoso is regarded as the first settlement of the Wenchi people. It was located near the Ayasu stream, where the hole of origin is situated. The name Bonoso means “the place of the hole.” Brass bowls were reportedly washed in the Ayasu river. The duration of occupation is unknown but local tradition suggests that Bonoso did not remain the principal settlement as long as the later capital at Ahwene Koko.^[13] Radiocarbon dates from the 2013 excavation indicate that Bonoso was occupied from the 7th century AD and continued for over four centuries.^[4]

After leaving Bonoso, the people moved to Ahwene Koko, about thirty-five kilometres south-west of Wenchi town. The name Ahwene Koko means “red beads” and derives from the stool of the first Queen-Mother, which was said to have come from the hole of origin and to have been made of beads and solid gold. The site was reportedly chosen for its suitability for cultivation and defence. At Bronoso, a large laterite crusted area with grass growing in patches, state ceremonies and festivals were held, including the annual yam festival.^[14] Clay smoking pipes known as Ozanne Type 2 were found throughout the site. This type of pipe dates to about 1655 or 1660 to 1690, which suggests that the site was occupied in the seventeenth century.^[15]

Awadie replaced Ahwene Koko as the main settlement. The name means “market place.” It is located about thirteen kilometres north-north-east of Ahwene Koko. Tradition states that the Akyemehene resided there. Some accounts hold that Awadie preceded Ahwene Koko, while others maintain that it was founded after the move from Ahwene Koko.^[14]

Following the emergence at Bonoso, the Twemma group moved to a site near the Botim stream, about three kilometres south of Wenchi town. There are differing accounts about whether they first settled at Ahwene Koko before moving to the Botim stream area. Twemma later developed two main quarters, Twemma Mmase and Twemma Akwadano.^[14]

After the Asante defeat of Ahwene Koko, the Wenchi moved to Drobo Nkwanta, located about one kilometre east of Twemma. An alternative account states that the movement to Drobo Nkwanta came from Kaam.^[14]

During the Asante invasion of Ahwene Koko, the Queen-Mother’s stool was said to have been hidden at the confluence of the Trome and Tain rivers. The site became known as Kanianko, meaning “a Kani cannot go.” According to tradition, Kanianko was founded shortly before or after 1715.^[16]

After the Asante invasion, members of the Konton clan moved to Kyenam, located between the Subin and Tain rivers. If the tradition is accurate, Kyenam was established shortly before or after 1715.^[17]

The state was ruled by the Paramount Chief, known as the Omanhene or Wenchihene, together with the Queen-Mother and sub-chiefs who were heads of clans and quarters.^[18] The Queen-Mother occupied a central political and spiritual position, presiding over matters of succession, mediating disputes, and safeguarding the traditions of the emergence narrative.^[19] Certain offices, such as the Akyemehene ("chief royal spokesmen"), played a role in state ceremonies and the transmission of oral history.^[19] Sub-chiefs included the Kontonhene, Akyemehene, Sisiraesehene, Twafuohehene, Awadihene, Twemmahene, and Nyinsae or Atomfuohehene. The Kontonhene acted as deputy to the Paramount Chief in his absence. The Akyemehene served as chief spokesman and caretaker of stool property. The Sanaahene supervised the treasury and dealt with finances. The Atomfuohehene was associated with blacksmiths. Household affairs of the Paramount Chief were managed by the Ankudwuhene.^[20]

The Paramount Chief was appointed by the Queen-Mother, usually from the adult males of the royal lineage. Seniority alone was not the only qualification. Personal qualities such as humility, generosity, physical fitness, and intelligence were considered. The candidate selected by the Queen-Mother was presented to the sub-chiefs and the elders. If rejected, another candidate was chosen. If accepted, the candidate was installed by being seated on the stool three times. Payments were made to sub-chiefs before allegiance was sworn. An alternative tradition states that the Paramount Chief was appointed by the state god, Drobo. After the fall of Ahwene Koko, the Paramount Chief was required to visit Kanianko, where priests of the state god confirmed his acceptance. Until this ritual was completed, he remained a probationary candidate. The Queen-Mother was selected as the most senior woman of the royal lineage. She was responsible for advising the Paramount Chief and could not be destooled. She was usually the mother or sister of the Chief. When a sub-chief died, elders of the clan met to select a successor, and the appointment was confirmed in the Traditional Council. The Nkwankwaahene served as spokesman for the youth and represented their interests before the council.^[21]

Serious offences such as murder and treason were tried by the Paramount Chief and his sub-chiefs. Sub-chiefs handled disputes within their clans when central authority was not involved. Religious offences against clan gods were also punished. Disputes could be resolved by oath-taking. If the accused swore falsely, it was believed that punishment would follow. Compensation was paid in minor cases. Those found guilty of murder or treason were normally executed.^[22]

Wenchi’s population is diverse, consisting of both indigenous and migrant groups.The indigenous population speaks the Brong or Bono dialect of the Akan language. Non-indigenous groups speak Hausa, Ligby, Senufo, Dagomba, Mossi, Grunshi, and Lobi.^[23]

Some Akan traditions describe the Pra–Ofin basin as the cradle of Akan culture, where the matrilineal clans were first formed and from which other Akan states later emerged. Wenchi traditions do not support this narrative. Research by Rattray and Boachie-Ansah shows that Wenchi and Techiman clans were named after the abronno (residential quarters) of their ancestors rather than after animal totems like the southern Akan states such as the Asante. These quarters were themselves named after trees under which the first settlers built their houses.^[24] Like other Akan societies, Wenchi was organized into matrilineal clans (abusua), each occupying a distinct quarter within the settlement.^[19] The clans are exogamous, meaning marriage within the same clan is forbidden. However, unlike southern Akan polities, Wenchi clans do not have separate animal totems. Instead, all clans share a single totem, the panta or wankyie.^[25] The principal clans were Akyease, Awerepeme, Akwandu, Sisiraese, Ababaa, and Twemma. Each clan was headed by a sub-chief who managed local affairs and owed allegiance to the Paramount Chief.^[19]

Boachie-Ansah concluded that the differences between Wenchi and southern Akan clans suggest that the Brong-speaking people had been separated from the Akan of southern Ghana for a long period of time. During the separation, the clan system and the semi-military form of government continued to evolved among the southern Akan, while Wenchi maintained a different structure.^[26]

The clans of Wenchi lived in quarters named after trees under which the first settlers built their houses. The Queen-Mother’s quarter was known as Asere. Other quarters were the Nyinsae, Sisiraese, Ababaa, and Akyease. The Nyinsae built their houses near banana plants, while the Sisiraese lived near silika-cotton trees. The Ababaa quarter, also known as Konton, was located in a valley, and the Nyinsae quarter was also called Atumfuo because it was associated with blacksmiths. Certain clans deliberately built their quarters near each other. The Asere group was located to the west, while the Nyinsae and Sisiraese were to the east. The Ababaa were near the Asere quarter. In some accounts, the Akwandu and Akyease shared the same quarter as the Asere. This arrangement may have served functional purposes. The Akyemehene resided near the Paramount Chief’s palace to facilitate access. Disputes among members of the royal households were settled by him. Members of the same clan built their houses near each other, with elders and clan heads occupying houses near major streets and others behind them. Immigrant groups were either incorporated into existing clan quarters or established separate quarters. The Bono group’s quarter became known as Krotia. According to the locals, there were no quarters for foreigners at Bonoso or Ahwene Koko.^[27]

The Paramount Chief and Queen-Mother lived in palaces that were larger than ordinary houses. These buildings were divided into two main halls, one for males and one for females, and had large courtyards and wide entrances without doors. Some rooms were reserved for the sacred stools. Common houses were usually constructed of wattle and daub and roofed with grass. Latrines were rectangular pits of considerable depth, with wooden frames supporting planks placed across the openings. The number of rooms reflected the size of the household. Adults and older children had separate sleeping areas, and in polygynous households each wife had her own room. Raised platforms were used as beds, and entrances were covered with raffia mats rather than doors. Cooking was typically done in the courtyard, or in a kitchen during the rainy season. Hearths consisted of three stones or fixed perforated pots. Refuse was disposed of a short distance from settlements.^[28]

Settlements did not have large public cemeteries. Nonentities, witches, and very young children were buried in cemeteries, while elders, important individuals, and clan heads were buried in their houses. When settlements were abandoned, the remains of important persons were exhumed and transferred.^[29] Graves were rectangular pits with a horizontal chamber. Bodies were placed on mats facing east with the head resting on a small support. The dead were buried with clothing, water, money, and other personal items. Women were buried with beads. Nobles were buried in the same manner as commoners, though servants were sometimes killed to accompany them. Children under four years were buried in pots.^[30]

Wenchi tradition prohibits the eating or killing of the panta or wankyie. A ninth-born child is barred from occupying the Wenchi stool and is not permitted to visit the sacred hole. The significance of the number nine is explained by the belief that a ninth-born prevented the ancestral Paramount Chief from emerging, leaving the Queen-Mother to rule. The hole at Bonoso is regarded as a sacred site. It is believed that the ancestors remain there and drum in the hole on Fridays. On Munuko, a day in the forty-two day calendar on which the Odwira festival falls, the Wenchihene travels to Bonoso to pour libation and offer sacrifices. No portion of the thicket surrounding the hole may be cleared for cultivation.^[2]

Traditions maintain that Muslim communities settled in the Wenchi area in recent times. They were the Hausa, Gyimii or Senufo, Banda or Ligby, and smaller groups from northern Ghana such as Dagomba and Grunshi. The Hausa are said to have been the first Muslim group to settle in Wenchi. Their leader was Mallam Ne’azu, a Hausa from Hadeja. They are said to have arrived during the reign of Nana Kwame Bene, who is known to have died around 1900 at the time of the Yaa Asantewaa War. Another Hausa group later settled in Wenchi from Salaga, where they had previously established themselves as traders and carriers of goods to the coast. The Banda, identified as Ligby, claim to have come during the reign of Asantehene Prempeh I. According to Abusiri Banda, they migrated from Wahabu near the village of Nchiraa, about seventeen kilometres north-east of Wenchi town. The Asantehene is said to have fought against the Nkoranza in this war, during which the Banda fought on the side of Asante. After being attacked by the Nkoranza a year later, the Banda fled to Kumasi. Prempeh advised them to settle near Abofour, but they instead established themselves in Wenchi. The Gyimii, identified as Senufo, claim to have migrated from Gyemene beyond Bonduku in the Ivory Coast during the reign of Nana Kwaku Manu. Some arrivals are linked to the insecurity caused by Samory’s campaigns in 1898. One account states that Fayimna, a soldier of Samory, fled to Kintampo during this period, and Gyimii in Wenchi claim him as a relative. The Daafi are associated with Malam Jakubu Benneh, a Muslim scholar and teacher who is said to have come to Wenchi with about 150 students during the reign of Nana Kwame Bene around the 1900s.^[31]

Wenchi did not maintain a standing army. In times of war, a meeting of the Traditional Council was convened and sub-chiefs swore an oath to fight and not retreat. The Paramount Chief personally led the people in war and was accompanied by the war god, Gyanso Kofro. Sub-chiefs, who were also heads of clans, mobilised their followers when conflict arose. Hunters were regarded as skilled warriors and played an important role in warfare. There were no sub-chiefs permanently assigned to command military divisions, and responsibilities were distributed when war was imminent.^[22] Weapons consisted mainly of slings, spears, and bows and arrows. Guns were individually owned and acquired through trade along the coast. Taxes were levied for the purchase of gunpowder.^[32] Tradition also states that certain military offices, including the Nifahene and the Krontihene, were held by lineages whose ancestors migrated from Techiman.^[33]

The political structure of Wenchi also differed from that of many southern Akan states. In several Akan polities, chiefs traditionally commanded military “wings” of a standing army as part of a semi-military system of government. It was unknown in Wenchi and was only introduced into the traditional area in the 1930s.^[24]

Economic activity in the state consisted of primary and secondary sectors. Primary activities involved direct use of the environment and included agriculture, food collection, fishing, and hunting. Secondary activities included blacksmithing, brass-working, and weaving, which transformed raw materials into manufactured goods.^[34]

Gold was panned in or near rivers. Pits (nkoron amena) were dug in areas such as Botim, Adadgye, Atɔn, Bisi, and Tain. Soil was washed in wooden containers (kodo) until gold dust (sika futuro) or small nuggets (pokowa) separated from the soil. A portion of gold was paid to the Paramount Chief, who is said to have had his own miners. Goldsmiths produced regalia, bracelets, rings, and other jewellery, and state swords and umbrella tops were decorated with gold foil.^[35]

Blacksmithing (atɔɔ) was associated with the Nyinase clan, whose head served as chief blacksmith of the state. The chief blacksmith was also known as atɔmfoɔ, meaning “place of blacksmiths.” An ancient hammer was said to have been attached to the stool of the chief blacksmith, later known as the Awerepeme stool. Iron smelting was remembered in two traditions. One account stated that the technique was brought from the hole of origin, while another claimed it became known through contact with the Mossi. Pieces of iron slag were found at Bonoso and may represent early iron working. Iron was smelted from lateritic concretions dug from the ground, and bellows (afa) were made from goatskin. Blacksmiths produced cutlasses (asekan), knives (asekanmma), hoes (aso), axes (akuma), mattocks (asɔkɔ), and bullets (mɔba). They also made musical instruments such as gong-gongs (adawuro) and percussion instruments known locally as fituo. Blacksmithing appears to have been hereditary and smiths were regarded with respect. Brass-working involved melting copper and brass obtained from the coast to produce gold weights (abramoo), treasure boxes and containers (adaka and kudu), and ceremonial objects. The cire perdue method and smithing were used in production. Stools and state chairs were decorated with brass.^[36]

Excavations at Ahwene Koko, revealed a trench measuring 2 by 6 metres revealed two cultural layers containing pottery, locally manufactured smoking pipes, grindstones, cuprous objects, iron slag, a glass bead, and a clay spindle whorl.^[37] The pottery assemblage included Ahwene Ware I, Ahwene Ware II, and Begho Ware. Begho Ware was decorated with rouletted motifs and contained carinated sherds. Corn-cob rouletted pottery appears only in Begho Ware and is associated with Mo potters. Sherds of this ware found at Ahwene Koko, Twemma, and Kaam indicate links with the Begho area.^[38]

Textile production is evidenced by the discovery of spindle whorls and small spinning bowls at Wenchi.^[39] Weaving was an important occupation, and women commonly spun locally grown cotton (asawaa) before it was woven into cloth. The earliest form of cloth was bark cloth, produced from the bark of the kyenkyen tree (Antiaris sp.). The bark was stripped, beaten on a log to soften and widen it, and worn as clothing. It continues to be used by shrine priests when carrying shrines to give oracles. Cloth dyeing was also practiced. Dye pits were dug in the ground and lined with cow dung before being filled with water. Leaves of dweera (Lonchocarpus cyanescens) were pounded in mortars and mixed with ash from the silk-cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra), then dissolved in the water. After about ten days the liquid turned blue, and cloth or cotton thread was soaked and dried in the sun.^[40]

Spindle whorls were sometimes obtained from Dwera or Dyula traders from Bondoukou, who also practiced dyeing in Wenchi. The local name dweera for Lonchocarpus cyanescens is believed to be associated with the connection. Cloths manufactured locally included gyamareaa, tugyensaaso, kubi, hianpa, nsafowa, nantwie aseres, adwene asa, gagagag, and wokoman. Some of these were expensive and worn only by the Paramount Chief and Queen-Mother, while others were produced for trade.^[41] Early European references noted Wenchi’s reputation for cloth production. A Dutch map of 1629 depicted the area as rich in gold and associated with textile manufacture, and Olfert Dapper recorded in 1670 that Wenchi was known for its cloth industry.^[42] Weaving is now practiced mainly by non-indigenous Muslim inhabitants, though some indigenous women spin cotton or thread beads. Blacksmithing is practiced by both Bono and Muslim artisans. Guns, hoes, and rodent traps are produced from scrap iron for sale. Pottery is made on a part-time basis by women in Wenchi and nearby villages including Koase, Drobo, and Nkonsia.^[23]

Yam (bayere) was the earliest cultivated crop. Other early crops included pumpkin (akyehuna), pigeon pea (akyenkuwa), kidney-shaped beans (krobona), rice (mo), and groundnut (nkateɛ). Yam cultivation was used in the New Yam Festival, during which the new crop was offered to lineage and state gods before being eaten. Cassava, cocoyam, and maize were also cultivated, though tradition holds that these were introduced later. Sheep, goats, guinea fowl, and domestic fowls were reared. Additional livestock, including sheep, goats, and cows, were said to have been obtained from the north. Food collecting was also important. Fruits gathered included abisaa (Vitex doniana), abe (Elaeis guineensis), adoma (Ficus capensis), kwaku abrobe (Myrianthus arboreus), nku (shea-butter tree), aboboma (Annona arenaria), aboto (Griffonia sp.), and kule (Bosqueia sp.). Leaves of akyakoo (Cissus populnea) were eaten, as were ahabayere (Dioscorea praehensilis) and kokra (Smilax kraussiana). Snails and wild mushrooms were also collected.^[43]

Snails and wild mushrooms were also collected. Fishing was carried out in streams and rivers such as Chimere, Trome, Bisi, and Tain. Fish were caught by poisoning, draining sections of river beds, or trapping with raffia traps. Crabs were also collected. Hunting was widely practiced and not restricted to specialists. In times of famine, hunters supplied meat for the community. Women married to hunters were regarded with pride because of their husbands’ skill. Tradition also maintains that neighboring territories were first identified by hunters, after which negotiations were conducted. Grass-cutters, rats, squirrels, antelopes, duikers, and birds such as partridges and wild guinea fowl were hunted as small game. Larger animals included leopards, lions, and buffalo. Although lions and leopards were not eaten, they were killed for their skins, which were worn by chiefs. The skin of a lion or leopard had to be presented to the Paramount Chief, and the thighs of edible game were also offered to him. Elephant tusks were made into trumpets for the Paramount Chief and his sub-chiefs and were sometimes sold to Europeans along the coast. Big game was hunted with muzzle-loading Dane guns known locally as adantam. Smaller animals were trapped or shot with small guns. Bush fires were used to drive animals into the open, where they were hunted with the help of dogs.^[43]

Wenchi traded extensively with areas within and beyond present-day Ghana. Within the traditional area, foodstuffs such as groundnuts, maize, and yam were brought to markets at Ahwene Koko and exchanged. Trade also linked Wenchi with Nsutre, Banda, Nsoko or Begho, Wa, Sampa, Bole, Kintampo, and Yapei. To the south, Denkyira and the Nkwanta and Asawase areas were important trading partners. Kola nuts were a major commodity sent northward to markets such as Bole, Sampa, Yapei, Wa, and Salaga. In return, Wenchi received foodstuffs, ivory, and later rubber. Manufactured cloths were traded southwards to Denkyira and the Kwahu region. Copper rods and European cloth, particularly a red cloth known locally as koogyan, as well as beads, tobacco, and salt were brought from the coast and exchanged in the Wenchi area, sometimes for slaves.^[44]

Trade routes also connected Wenchi to Bonduku and other areas of the savannah. Cowries, cloth, blankets, and locally manufactured items were exchanged for kola, salt, and copper rods. Gold, cowries, and iron discs known as dadeboo were used as currency, although traditions differ on which medium was used first.^[45] According to Boachie-Ansah, the discovery of Begho Ware pottery and Venetian beads at Ahwene Koko supports evidence of long-distance trade links with the Begho area and northern networks.^[46][24] Markets were located at Wenchi and at Subinso, about twenty-five kilometres to the north-west. These markets received fish from the coast, meat from northern Ghana, yams and groundnuts from the Nsawkaw area, textiles from Kumasi and beyond, and earthenware from the Mo area, particularly from Bondakile. Wenchi traders also visited markets at Badu and Techiman.^[23]

The seven clans of Wenchi developed independently and are not similar to the clans found in other Akan areas.^[47] Researchers have argued that similar clan names occur in Techiman, Wenchi, and other Akan areas, others, including Rattray, have emphasized the differences. Busia recorded that Wenchi as a whole belonged to the Asene clan, while Goody and Meyerowitz claimed that only the royal lineage traced Asene descent.^[48] Some researchers suggest that migrant groups belonging to clans recognized elsewhere in Akan territory, such as the Asene, may have been adopted into Wenchi royalty or imposed their rule on the indigenous population, later adopting local traditions to ease integration.^[49] Like other Akan groups, Wenchi clans are exogamous, but unlike their southern counterparts, they do not have individual animal totems. Instead, all Wenchi clans share a single totem, the panta or wankyie, a pig-like animal linked to the state's emergence tradition.^[25] Boachie-Ansah has further argued, based on archaeological evidence from Bonoso and other forest sites, that complex iron-producing societies existed in the forest zone of Ghana from the first millennium AD. This position challenges interpretations that forest Akan societies only emerged in the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries.^[50]

• Akan People
• Bono state
• Bono people
• Brong-Ahafo Region
• History of Ghana

• Boachie-Ansah, James (1986). An Archaeological Contribution to the History of Wenchi. Legon, Ghana: University of Ghana, Department of Archaeology. p. 303. OCLC 18431720.
• Flynn, John K. (1971). Ashanti and Her Neighbours, 1700 to 1807. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. ISBN 978-0810103696.
• Boachie-Ansah, James (2013). "Preliminary report on an excavation conducted at Bonoso in the Wenchi Traditional Area, Brong-Ahafo Region, Ghana" (PDF). Nyame Akuma (79): 134–140.
• Boachie-Ansah, James (2015). "Report on an Excavation Conducted in January, 2013 at Bonoso, Ghana" (PDF). Nyame Akuma (84): 41–54.

6°29′00″N 0°11′00″E / 6.4833333°N 0.1833333°E / 6.4833333; 0.1833333