The Hydropathes

Les Hydropathes
Les Hydropathes
Formation11 October 1878
FounderÉmile Goudeau
DissolvedJune 1880
TypeLiterary club
PurposeCelebration of literature and poetry; satirical performances
HeadquartersLatin Quarter (early), Montmartre (later)
Location
  • Paris, France
Region
Paris

The Hydropathes was a Parisian literary club founded by the French novelist and poet Émile Goudeau and primarily active between 1878 and 1880. The club published the journal "L'Hydropathe",[1] which was later renamed "Le Tout-Paris".[2] It is considered to be the origin of fumism[3] and passed his traditions on to the Hirsutes, Le Chat-Noir and "le Décadent".[4] Jules Lévy, founder of the Arts Incohérents,[5] was a member.[6]

History

Formation

After the Franco-Prussian War,[7] many literary clubs of extremely varied longevity and importance were created in Paris. The Hydropathes' club was one of the most imporant due to its longevity and the artists that participated in it.

The club was created by Émile Goudeau on October 11, 1878.[8] Goudeau stated that, due to the group's lack of a "common programme", they simply chose "a name that wouldn’t compromise any of the society’s future doctrines or possible apostasies".[9] Thus, the name's ambiguity lead to the proposal of several etymologies and interpretations, with many of them related to water due to the use of "hydro-" in the name.[10] The name has been interpreted as a play on words deconstructing Goudeau's name into "Gout d'eau" (in English "the taste of water").[11] A "Blague Hydropathe" implied that the name came from the fact that the club met at the Hôtel Boileau, transforming its name into "Boire l'eau" (in English "to drink water").[12] However, this explanation is considered as a subtle attempt at mocking readers.[13] Many believe that the name expresses the group's aversion to drinking water, as Montmartre was characterized by excess and, in particular, the consumption of absinthe.[14] Finally, it has been suggested that the name may be a reference to the hydra, using it either as a symbol of revolution and anarchy or a representation of "bourgeois conformity".[15]

The group began holding meetings, that they referred to as "séances", on every Wednesday and Friday evening.[16]

L'Hydropathe

Beginnings

The club's journal, named "L'Hydropathe", began production in January 1879, with its first edition being published on 22 January.[17] It was released bimonthly[1] and had a mostly consistent structure. Each edition's cover had a caricature portrait of a Hydropathe drawn by Georges Lorin (also known as "Cabriol")[18] and contained a mix of poetry, prose and illustrations.[19] Regarding its organization, "Goudeau acted as Editor-in-Chief, Paul Vivien as Chief Administrator, and the role of administrator was shared between Alce d’Alis, Jules Jouy, Paul Allais, Émile Cohl and Maurice Petit".[20]

Renaming as "Tout-Paris" and End

After publishing 32 editions, it was decided that the ideas that existed surrounding "L'Hydropathe", were beginning to limit artists. Because of this, its editors decided to expand the team, start publishing weekly and, most importantly, renaming the journal "Tout-Paris".[21][2][22] The group decided to leave the Latin Quarter and establish themselves in the hills of Montmartre.[23] On his memoir, Goudeau states these decisions were taken due to the fact that a man with the pseudonym "Joinville" expressed interest in helping the journal grow sginificantly and relocating it on 40 Rue de Richelieu.[24]

However, by leaving the Latin Quarter, the journal became separated from its audience composed of local students and also separated itself from the "séances" that helped to make it popular, tied it to comperary ideas and served as a source of funding and inspiration.[25][26] This meant the journal was dependent on Joinville's investments allowing it to build a new audience. For this reason, once Joinville's fortune was lost on in a game of cards, the journal had stop publishing in June 1880.[27][2] It only released five editions under its new name, the covers for these were illustrated by Eugène Bataille (also known as "Sapeck").[28]

The End of The Hydropathes

Throughout the group's history, there were quite a few occasions in which Goudeau had to function as an authoritarian figure in order to control a "tumultuous assembly".[29] However, this problem worsened over time, with the group having multiple encounters with the police.[30] Goudeau reached his breaking point when, in June 1880, a group of artists decided to set off fireworks in the middle of a "séance", marking their end.[31]

The Hirsutes, Le Chat-Noir and Le Décadent

After the group separated, its traditions were passed onto "three direct heirs: the Hirsutes, Le Chat-Noir and le Décadent".[4]

In late September 1881, in an attempt to reunite the Hydropathes, Maurice Petit held a meeting with Léo Trézenik, Desbouiges, Collignon and Jules Jouy[32] They were also joined by Goudeau and Moynet.[33] The group was looking for a new name and Goudeau suggested "Hirsutes", it was accepted and Petit was chosen as president.[34][35] While the project seemed hopeless after its first advertisements yielded no results, its Friday "séances" quickly gained popularity, causing the group to grow and change meeting locations several times to accommodate a larger crowd.[36]

In November of the same year, the cabaret Le Chat-Noir opened[37] and Goudeau, along with other ex-Hydropathes, began performing there. In the cabaret, the dynamic between artists and their audience changed. Artists were respected and interacted in a private room while customers were often insulted, being addressed as "mon cochon" (meaning "pig" in english).[38] Over time, Petit lost popularity, was forced to abdicate the presidency and Goudeau took over.[39] On October 2, 1882,[5] Jules Lévy, an ex-Hydropathe[6] and founding member of the Hirsutes,[40][41] staged "an exhibition of drawings by people who can't draw",[42] which marked the beginning of the Arts Incohérents.[5] By January 1883, Goudeau had completely lost interest in the Hirsutes, choosing to focus on Le Chat-Noir. This was a sentiment shared by many other members.[43] The final "séance" was held by a single member in May of the same year.[43]

After these events, several short-lived publications appeared in Montmartre.[44] Among these, one of the most important was "Le Décadent". It started out as a weekly publication and its first edition was published on April 10, 1886, under the direction of Anatole Baju.[45] "Le Décadent" gained popularity very quickly and, starting with its 36th edition, became longer and was published bimonthly.[46][47] At the time, its writers were: "Paul Verlaine, Maurice du Plessys, Laurent Tailhade, Léo d’Arkaï, Albert Aurier, Ernest Raynaud, Jean Lorrain, F.-A. Cazals, Boyer d’Agen, Louis Pilate de Brinn’Gaubast, Jules Renard, Arthur Rimbaud".[48] It is important to mention the fact that, in Rimbaud's case, some of the poems that were published were fake and they were attributed to him were created in order to attract attention.[49] On April 15, 1889, "Le Décadent" began being published under the name "La France Littéraire" and Baju had the intention to shift its focus towards sociology and politics.[50] This change was not well received, the publication lost popularity and many writers abandoned it. This marked the end of "Le Décadent", which ceased publication under its new name on May 15, 1889.[51]

1928 Reunion

On October 17, 1928, Jules Lévy invited former Hydropathes to celebrate the club's 50th anniversary in the amphitheater of the Sorbonne.[52] Fifty-four members attended the event, which was featured in the front page of Le Figaro.[52]

The Hydropathes and Fumism

The creation of fumism is attributed to the Hydropathes.[3] In the eighth edition of L'Hydropathe's second year, Georges Fragerolle published an article titled "Fumisme".[53] In it, the movement's main thesis, as well as a brief description of it, can be found. Its thesis is presented in the form of an epigraph attributed to Émile Zola:[54] «The arts must become fumism <turn into smoke>, or they will not exist».[55] Fragerolle states that fumism:

is to wit what operetta is to opéra-bouffe, caricature to cartoon, prunes to castor oil. To be considered a wit, it is sometimes enough to be an ass in a lion's skin; to be a good fumiste, it is often required to be a lion in an ass's skin. In the former case, the effect is direct, in the latter it is once, twice, often ten times reflected.[56]

In his account, Goudeau mentions that among the Hydropathes, the "fumistes" were led by Sapeck and mocked everything, a behavior that exacerbated the group's internal conflicts.[57] Scholars have stated that "Allais, Salis, and Sapeck lived their Fumisme", shocking their audience through the transgression of certain norms.[58]

Notable Hydropathes

The following is non-comprehensive list of notable Hydropathes:[59]

Other groups

Many official associations formed in accordance to the "Loi du 1er juillet 1901 relative au contrat d'association" ("Law of July 1, 1901 on the contract of association", in English)[60] honor the Hydropathes through their names and activities[61]

  • The "Club des Hydropathes de Périgneux" ("Club of the Hydropathes of Périgneux" in English) was created in 2001[62] and officially established in 2003 with the purpose of promoting francophone poetry.[63] Its president is Maurice Millet and its magazine has published 238 issues containing a total of 4 647 poems.[62]
  • An association named "Les Hydropathes" was formed in the Territoire de Belfort in 2011. It takes part in various festive activities and local events to raise money for charity.[64]
  • The group "Hydropathes", created in Paris in 2013, organizes events and participates in activities to promote the arts and culture.[65]
  • The "Compagnie Hydropathes" was created in the Oloron-Sainte-Marie Sub-Prefecture in 2024. It is involved in a wide range of activities relating to the creation and presentation of live shows in their various forms (puppetry, music, etc.).[66]

Although it is named "Les Hydropathes", the sports and outdoor activities association formed in the Lisieux Sub-Prefecture in 2015 has no ties to the group. Its name may be a reference to the water sports practiced in it.[67]

Notes

  1. ^ a b Kostelanetz, Richard (2016) [2001]. "Hydropathes". A Dictionary of the Avant-Gardes (2nd ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
  2. ^ a b c Dubor 2005, original (French): « Les réunions finissent en juin 1880 : le journal Tout-Paris, qui faisait suite au journal L’Hydropathe, et publiait la plupart des pièces données au cours des séances, devient sans objet. ». Translation: "The meetings came to an end in June 1880: the Tout-Paris journal, which followed on from L'Hydropathe and published most of the works given at the meetings, lost its purpose.".
  3. ^ a b Grojnowski, D. (1997). Aux commencents du rire moderne: L’esprit fumiste. José Corti.
  4. ^ a b Barre 1911, p. 70, original (French) : «En 1880, Émile Goudeau disparut du côté de Montmartre; les Hydropathes s'évanouirent, abandonnant leurs traditions à trois héritiers directs : les Hirsutes, le Chat-Noir et le Décadent.». Translation: "In 1880, Émile Goudeau disappeared from Montmartre; the Hydropathes vanished, leaving their traditions to three direct heirs: the Hirsutes, the Chat-Noir and the Décadent.".
  5. ^ a b c Laurine Fontaine. Les Arts Incohérents et leur siècle, un mouvement artistique et littéraire. Un mouvement de rupture et de continuité : héritages et aspirations artistico-littéraires d’une esthétique nouvelle. Art et histoire de l’art. 2022. ffdumas-04958324f
  6. ^ a b François, Violaine (2019-10-24). "L'Hydropathe en scène : quand l'auteur devient interprète". Acta Fabula (in French). doi:10.58282/colloques.6376. ISSN 2115-8037.
  7. ^ Grojnowski ‘Hydropathes and Co.’, p.96.
  8. ^ Rearick, Charles (1985). Pleasures of the Belle Epoque: Entertainment and Festivity in Turn-of-the Century France. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 55.
  9. ^ Goudeau 1888, pp. 185–186, original (French) : «J’expliquai ensuite l’origine du mot, et j’insistai sur ce point, que, n’ayant pas de programme commun, nous posséderions un nom inédit qui ne compromettrait ni les doctrines futures de la Société ni les apostasies possibles». Translation: "I then explained the origin of the word, and insisted on this point, that, having no common program, we would possess a novel name that wouldn't compromise any of the society's future doctrines or possible apostasies.".
  10. ^ Trott 2014, p. 60, "Nearly all of the various interpretations refer to water, in response to the prefix ‘hydro’."
  11. ^ Trott 2014, p. 60, "Goudeau cites two such explanations, relating the term first of all to his own name: Goudeau becomes ‘Gout d’eau’, meaning ‘the taste of water’".
  12. ^ 3 ‘Blagues Hydropathesques,’ l’Hydropathe, 1 (22 January 1879), p.4.
  13. ^ Trott 2014, p. 60, "Although the latter interpretation was pitted as a ‘blague’ – a quip against an ignorant public that is subtly mocked –".
  14. ^ Trott 2014, p. 60, " In claiming water was banned from club meetings because it made them sick, the Hydropathes alluded to the drunken antics that could be found at their séances. Given how closely the group is related to liberal ‘bourgeois’ bohemia, and the excesses of Montmartre whose frivolity and imagination were infamously fuelled by the taste for absinthe, for many this is the most palpable interpretation of the club’s name.".
  15. ^ Grojnowski, ‘ Hydropathes and Co.’, p.99.
  16. ^ Trott 2014, p. 8, "Soon after its first meeting in the autumn of that year, the club boasted over three-hundred members from its local community in the Latin Quarter. Assembling in a private venue each Wednesday and Friday evening, it provided a platform for its members to perform original creative works, and offered a convivial, artistic environment in which to socialise."
  17. ^ "L'Hydropathe / réd. en chef Paul Vivien". Gallica. 1879-01-01. Retrieved 2025-07-04.
  18. ^ Catherine Charpin, Les Arts incohérents (1882–1893), Paris, Editions Syros Alternatives, 1990, p. 117.
  19. ^ Trott 2014, p. 171, "Over its thirty-two issues there are slight changes in the balance between poetry, prose and illustration, influenced by the dynamics within the club.
  20. ^ Trott 2014, p. 172
  21. ^ Trott 2014, p. 172, In June 1880, in order to expand their outreach and to move beyond the fixed idea of the ‘Hydropathe’, which was stated in its final issue to have ‘now grown old’, the club’s leaders moved north of the river, and rebranded the journal as Tout-Paris.
  22. ^ Larousse, Éditions. "les Hydropathes – LAROUSSE". www.larousse.fr (in French). Retrieved 2025-07-04. Un journal, l'Hydropathe, fut créé en 1879, auquel succédera le Tout-Paris (1880) [A newspaper, L'Hydropathe, was launched in 1879, succeeded by Le Tout-Paris (1880).]
  23. ^ Luc Bihl-Willette, 1997, Des tavernes aux bistrots: histoire des café, p.145, original (French): "en 1880 Goudeau prend une décision révolutionnaire: il quitte le Quartier latin, suivi des principaux Hydropathes, et rejoint sur les flancs de la Butte Montmartre ...". Translation: "in 1880 Goudeau took a revolutionary decision: he left the Latin Quarter, followed by the main Hydropathes, and, on the slopes of the Butte Montmartre, joined ...".
  24. ^ Goudeau 1888, p. 246, original (French) : «Un jeune homme qui portait hardiment le pseudonyme de Joinville ... ayant fait un héritage, déclara vouloir agrandir, restaurer, transformer, ennoblir L’Hydropathe Journal, en le transportant sur la rive droite en un local, 40, rue Richlieu, au quatrième, avec un nom nouveau: Tout Paris, etc., etc.». Translation: "A young man who boldly bore the pseudonym Joinville ... having made an inheritance, declared that he wanted to enlarge, restore, transform and ennoble L'Hydropathe Journal, by moving it to the right bank, to a location at 40, rue Richlieu, on the fourth floor, with a new name: Tout Paris, etc., etc.".
  25. ^ Trott 2014, p. 175, "The collective had established a presence in the neighbourhood and was dependent upon the local student community."
  26. ^ Trott 2014, p. 174, "In this single move the Hydropathes lost any inspiration that the séances and their participants offered as a continuously rejuvenating pool of ideas and expertise. And furthermore, perhaps crucially, they lost [...] its anchoring to the contemporary cultural environment."
  27. ^ Goudeau 1888, p. 247, original (French) : «Joinville jouait au baccarat encore plus qu'au Mécène. Ce fut notre perte.». Translation: "Joinville played baccarat even more than he played Mécène. It was our downfall.".
  28. ^ Pakenham Michael. L'illustre Sapeck. In: Romantisme, 1992, n°75. Les petits maîtres du rire. pp. 35–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/roman.1992.5999, p.37-38, original (French): "Sapeck, le roi des fumistes, a dû y faire son apprentissage aux frais des pions qui le connaissaient sous le nom d'Eugène François Bonaventure Bataille, né au Mans le 7 mai 1853.". Translation: "Sapeck, king of the fumistes, must have apprenticed there at the expense of the pawns who knew him as Eugène François Bonaventure Bataille, born in Le Mans on May 7, 1853.".
  29. ^ Goudeau 1888, pp. 191–192, original (French) : «j’évitai toute confusion entre mon rôle ordinaire de bon vivant, et ce que la discipline nécessaire en une assemblée tumultueuse m’imposait de manières cassantes, quelquefois brutales, mais absolument nécessaires». Translation: "I avoided any confusion between my ordinary role as a bon vivant, and what the discipline necessary in a tumultuous assembly imposed on me in terms of brittle manners, sometimes brutal, but absolutely necessary.".
  30. ^ Jules Lévy, Les Hydropathes, (Paris. Andre Delpeuch, 1928)
  31. ^ Trott 2014, pp. 16–17, "In June 1880, Hydropathe ‘prankster’ known as ‘the illustrious Sapeck’ (pseudonym of Eugène Bataille) led a small faction of artists (also including Georges Vuidet, Georges Fragerolle, and Alphonse Allais) who set off fireworks during one of the meetings [...] it proved the final straw for Goudeau, whose allegiance to the society had already begun to flounder, and this incident marked the end of the Hydropathe meetings.
  32. ^ Barre 1911, p. 71, original (French) : «A la fin de septembre 1881, Maurice Petit eut l'idée dé reconstituer les Hydropathes. [...] Maurice Petit rencontra Léo Trézenik, Desbouiges et Gollignon. [...] Les quatre amis furent exacts au rendez-vous. Ils amenèrent même avec eux un chaud partisan de l'affaire, Jules Jouy.». Translation: "At the end of September 1881, Maurice Petit had the idea of reconstituting the Hydropathes. [...] Maurice Petit met Léo Trézenik, Desbouiges and Gollignon. [...] The four friends arrived to the meeting. They even brought along Jules Jouy, a staunch supporter of the project.".
  33. ^ Barre 1911, p. 71, original (French) : «Entre temps vinrent s'ajouter à ces cinq commissaires Emile Goudeau, ressuscité par curiosité, et Moynet.». Translation: "In the meantime, these five commissioners were joined by Emile Goudeau, resurrected out of curiosity, and Moynet.".
  34. ^ Barre 1911, p. 71, original (French) : «On discuta sur le nom à donner au nouveau cénacle. Desbouiges proposa les Mécënéoliens, Goudeau les Hirsutes. Cette dernière qualification fut adoptée». Translation: " There was a discussion about the name to be given to the new cenacle. Desbouiges proposed the Mécënéoliens, Goudeau the Hirsutes. The latter qualification was adopted".
  35. ^ Barre 1911, p. 71, original (French) : «La présidence fut offerte à Goudeau qui la déclina, à Moynet qui imita sa modestie, à Maurice Petit qui attendait cet honneur, et qui l'accepta.». Translation: "The presidency was offered to Goudeau, who declined, to Moynet, who imitated his modesty, and to Maurice Petit, who expected this honor and accepted it.".
  36. ^ Barre 1911, pp. 71–72
  37. ^ Donnay, Maurice. Autour du Chat noir [Around The Chat Noir]. Grasset, 1926.
  38. ^ Rearick 1985, p. 46, "His cachet was to insult the bourgeois in person even as they came into his cabaret as paying customers, addressing them as mon cochon (pig) and tas de salauds (bunch of bastards).".
  39. ^ Barre 1911, p. 73, original (French) : «Par malheur, le président Maurice Petit manquait à la fois d'éloquence et d'esprit d'à propos. Il y eut bientôt des brouhahas de fâcheux augure. [...] Cependant il convenait d'agir vite si l'on voulait sauver les Hirsutes. Maurice Petit de plus en plus se cramponnait à son fauteuil. Par subterfuge, Trézenik obtint sa démission en faveur de Goudeau.». Translation: "Unfortunately, President Maurice Petit lacked both eloquence and wit. Soon there was an ominous brouhaha. [...] However, action had to be taken quickly if the Hirsutes were to be saved. Maurice Petit clung tighter and tighter to his chair. By subterfuge, Trézenik obtained his resignation in favor of Goudeau.".
  40. ^ Barre 1911, p. 73, original (French) : «Voici la liste des vingt-cinq fondateurs telle qu'elle fut présentée à la préfecture lors du dépôt des statuts, par ordre de date et d'inscription : [...] Jules Lévy, F. Fau, Aug. Antoine, Charpentier.». Translation: "Here is the list of the twenty-five founders as presented to the prefecture when the articles of association were filed, in order of date and registration: [...] Jules Lévy, F. Fau, Aug. Antoine, Charpentier.".
  41. ^ Richard, N. (1957). À l’Aube du Symbolisme. Paris: Nizet.
  42. ^ Lévy, J. (1885, March 12). L’Incohérence, son origine, son histoire, son avenir.Le Courrier Français. p.3, original (French): «Faire une exposition de dessins exécutés par des gens qui ne savent pas dessiner.». Translation: "An exhibition of drawings made by people who can't draw.".
  43. ^ a b Trézenik, L. (2016). Les Hirsutes. Hachette BNF. (Original work published 1884)
  44. ^ Barre 1911, p. 82, original (French) : «Ils créèrent [sic] des journaux qui vécurent peu, mais dont l’histoire fait honneur à leur énergie.». Translation: "They created newspapers that lived a short lives, but history honors their energy.".
  45. ^ Anatole Baju, l’École décadente. Paris, Vanier, 1887.
  46. ^ Barre 1911, p. 87, original (French) : «Cependant dès le numéro 36, le Décadent devient bi-mensuel adopte le format in-16 et se transforme en petite revue à couverture le plus souvent jaunâtre.». Translation: "However, from issue 36 onwards, Le Décadent became a bi-monthly, adopting the in-16 format and transforming itself into a small magazine with a commonly yellowish cover.".
  47. ^ "Le Décadent littéraire & artistique / directeur Anatole Baju – 4 Years available – Gallica". gallica.bnf.fr. Retrieved 2025-07-05.
  48. ^ Barre 1911, p. 87, original (French) : «Les rédacteurs du Décadent étaient alors : Paul Verlaine. Maurice du Plessys, Laurent Tailhade, Léo clArkaï, Albert AurieF, Ernest Raynaud, Jean Lorrain, F. -A. Cazals,Boyer d'Agen, Louis Pilate de Brinn'Gaubast, Jules Renard, Arthur Rimbaud.». Translation: "The writers of the Décadent were: Paul Verlaine. Maurice du Plessys, Laurent Tailhade, Léo clArkaï, Albert AurieF, Ernest Raynaud, Jean Lorrain, F. -A. Cazals,Boyer d'Agen, Louis Pilate de Brinn'Gaubast, Jules Renard, Arthur Rimbaud.".
  49. ^ Anthologie du pastiche, Léon Deffoux et Pierre Dufay, tome second, G.Grès, Paris, 1926.
  50. ^ Baju, A. (1891). L’Anarchie littéraire (1st ed.). Librairie Léon Vanier.
  51. ^ PRELIA: (Petites REvues de LIttérature et d’Art). (n.d.). [Dataset; Digital]. Hypotheses. https://prelia.fr/base/opac_css/index.php?lvl=bulletin_display&id=1176
  52. ^ a b Jacques Patin, Le cinquantenaire des Hydropathes. Un manquant », Le Figaro, mercredi 17 octobre 1928 , p.1, original (French) «A l'appel de M. Jules Lévy, [...] les Hydropathes, réunis cet après-midi dans le grand amphithéâtre de la Sorbonne, fêteront leur cinquantenaire. [...] on nous assure que les Hydropathes ne sont plus que cinquante-quatre». Translation: "At the invitation of Mr. Jules Lévy, [...] the Hydropathes, meeting this afternoon in the grand amphitheatre of the Sorbonne, will celebrate their fiftieth anniversary. [...] we are told that the Hydropathes are now down to fifty-four".
  53. ^ Fragerolle, G. (12 May 1880). "Le Fumisme". L'Hydropathe. 2 (8): 2–3.
  54. ^ Grojnowski, Daniel (2016), Saint-Amand, Denis (ed.), "Des groupes et des œuvres : Zutiques, Hydropathes, Incohérents", La dynamique des groupes littéraires, Situations (in French), Liège: Presses universitaires de Liège, pp. 85–95, ISBN 978-2-8218-9640-6, retrieved 2025-07-10{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
  55. ^ Alphonse Allais. (biographie par François Caradec). «Œuvres anthumes». — Paris, Robert Laffont Edition S.A., 1989. — 682 p.
  56. ^ Harding, James Martin (2000). Contours of the Theatrical Avant-Garde: Performance and Textuality. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-06727-5. p.18, "The composer Georges Fragerolle explained that fumisme is to wit what operetta is to opéra-bouffe, caricature to cartoon, prunes to castor oil. To be considered a wit, it is sometimes enough to be an ass in a lion's skin; to be a good fumiste, it is often required to be a lion in an ass's skin. In the former case, the effect is direct, in the latter it is once, twice, often ten times reflected."
  57. ^ Goudeau 1888, p. 159, original (French): «Les fumistes, ayant à leur tête le redoutable Sapeck, ne songeaient qu'à se gausser de tout, tandis que des hiérarques convaincus poussaient le bureau présidentiel à tenir haut et ferme le drapeau de l'art. C'était une série de conflits intestinaux où le simple public se laissait prendre.». Translation: "The “fumists”, led by the redoubtable Sapeck, only thought about making fun of everything, while convinced hierarchs urged the presidential office to hold high the flag of art. It was a series of intestinal conflicts in which the ordinary public let itself get caught up.".
  58. ^ Catherine Dousteyssier-Khoze, ‘Le rire jaune du Chat Noir’, in Catherine Dousteyssier-Khoze & Paul Scott, (Ab)normalities (Durham: Durham Modern Languages Series, 2001)
  59. ^ Robine, M. (1994). Anthologie de la chanson française: des trouvères aux grands auteurs du XIXe siècle.
  60. ^ "Loi du 1er juillet 1901 relative au contrat d'association". Légifrance. Archived from the original on 2025-03-10. Retrieved 2025-07-12.
  61. ^ "Recherche associations — Journal Officiel". www.journal-officiel.gouv.fr. Retrieved 2025-07-12.
  62. ^ a b "Dordogne : Les Hydropathes ont encore des sources d'inspiration". Dordogne Libre (in French). 2023-05-23. Retrieved 2025-07-12.
  63. ^ "CLUB DES HYDROPATHES DE PERIGUEUX. Annonce JOAFE parue le 13 décembre 2003". Journal Officiel. Retrieved 2025-07-12.
  64. ^ "LES HYDROPATHES. Annonce JOAFE parue le 10 septembre 2011". Journal Officiel. Retrieved 2025-07-13.
  65. ^ "HYDROPATHES. Annonce JOAFE parue le 11 mai 2013". Journal Officiel. Retrieved 2025-07-13.
  66. ^ "COMPAGNIE HYDROPATHES Annonce JOAFE parue le 2 avril 2024". Journal Officiel. Retrieved 2025-07-18.
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References

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