Kurundi Raja Maha Vihara

Kurundi Buddhist Archaeological Site

Kurundi Stupa
Kurundi Buddhist Archaeological Site Shown within Northern Province
Location	Mullaitivu District, Northern Province, Sri Lanka
Region	Thannimurippu
Coordinates	9°06′58.9″N 80°45′44.2″E / 9.116361°N 80.762278°E / 9.116361; 80.762278
Type	Pabbatarama Buddhist monastic tradition
Area	Approximately 420 acres
History
Builder	King Khallatanaga
Material	Laterite stone
Founded	109–104 BCE (2nd century BCE)
Abandoned	13th century CE
Periods	From the Anuradhapura period to the end of the Polonnaruwa period
Cultures	Sinhalese Buddhist
Events	●Traditionally believed to be a place visited by the Buddha during his second visit to Sri Lanka. ●Believed to be the place where the Kurundi Atthakatha was composed.
Site notes
Archaeologists	J. P. Lewis (first recorded) H. C. P. Bell John Still Henry Parker Ellawala Medhananda Thero
Condition	Under conservation
Ownership	Department of Archaeology (Sri Lanka)
Management	Amarapura Sri Kalyanivansa Nikaya
Public access	Yes
Website	kurundi.lk
Archaeological Protected Monument of Sri Lanka
Official name	Kurundi Buddhist Archaeological Site
Type	Pabbatarama complex
Criteria	Buddhist Monastery
Designated	12 May 1933 (Archaeological Reserve) 16 August 2013 (Archaeological Monument)
Reference no.	Gazette No. 7981

Kurundi Raja Maha Vihara or Kurundi/Kurundhi Archaeological Site (Sinhala: කුරුන්දි රජ මහා විහාරය, Tamil: குருந்தி ராஜ மகா விஹாரை) is an ancient Buddhist monastic complex dating to the 2nd century BCE, located in the Mullaitivu District of the Northern Province in Sri Lanka. It is situated within the Muhudubadapattu Divisional Secretariat Division, in the Komalamunai Central Grama Niladhari Division. The monastery is believed to have been constructed by King Khallatanaga during the 2nd century BCE.The site is also referred to in various historical sources by several names including Kurundavashoka, Kurundapasaka, Kurundachulaka, Kurundapillaka, Kurundivelu, and Piyangala Ancient Vihara.

The archaeological site can be reached by travelling from Vavuniya along the A9 highway through Puliyankulam and passing the town of Nedunkeni towards Mullaitivu. After travelling approximately 6 km towards Mullaitivu, an access road leads towards the Thannimurippu forest reserve. From there, travelling about 10 km through the reserve leads to the archaeological complex.Alternatively, the site can also be accessed via the Mullaitivu–Kokkilai B297 road. Travelling about 11 km from Mullaitivu and turning south at the Alampil junction, the route passes near the headquarters of the 24th Battalion of the Sri Lanka Sinha Regiment. From there, travelling about 12 km south leads to an access road marked by a signboard, from which the site can be reached after travelling approximately 4 km.

The monastic complex was declared an archaeological reserve on 12 May 1933 by the British Ceylon government through Government Gazette No. 7981. It was later declared a protected archaeological monument by the Government of Sri Lanka on 16 August 2013.^[1]According to archaeologist Henry Parker, Kurundavashoka Vihara is the largest ruined monastic complex in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka.^[2]

According to historical chronicles such as the Mahavamsa and its commentaries, the Kurundi Vihara (also referred to as Kurundavashoka Vihara) was established during the 2nd century BCE by King Khallatanaga (119–103 BCE), a son of King Saddhatissa. The Mahavamsa records the construction of the monastery with the phrase "So ca Kurundapasakaṃ vihārañca akārayi".^{[quote 1]}It has also been recorded by J. P. Lewis, the Government Agent of the Northern Province who first documented the site, that according to local traditions the Buddha is believed to have visited this area during his second visit to Sri Lanka, when he travelled to Nagadeepa (Nakadeeva), which broadly corresponds to the northern regions of the island including the present-day Jaffna Peninsula.^[3]

Ancient literary sources such as the Pujavaliya and the Nikaya Sangrahaya refer to the region where Kurundi Vihara is located by several names including Kurundu Rata, Kurundugammū Rata, Kurundaka, and Kurundarattha. According to the Kadayim Potha (Boundary Records), the region is also referred to as Kurundugamu Rata.^{[note 1]}R. W. Levers proposed that the two divisions known as Kædæ and Kadawat Korales located to the north of Anuradhapura were collectively known as Kurundu Rata.^[4]

However, C. W. Nicholas later rejected this interpretation and argued that the area referred to as Kurundu Rata corresponds instead to the southern part of Karikkattumullei in present-day Vavuniya. He further suggested that the name Kurundiratta survives in the modern toponym Kurunthanur.^[5]

According to the research of H. A. P. Abhayawardhana on the boundary records, Kurundu Rata was located close to Padi Rata, which he identifies with the present-day Padaviya region.^[6]

The name Kurundu Rata is believed to have originated from the abundance of laterite stone (known locally as kurundu or kuruvinda stone) scattered throughout the region. According to the commentary Vamsatthappakasini on the Mahavamsa, this kuruvinda stone was also used in the foundation construction of the Ruwanwelisaya. This is indicated in the phrase "Tassopari kharasudaṃ kuruvindaṃ tatopari".^[7]

It is also believed that a monastic college known as Kurundachulaka or Kurundapasaka existed at this monastery located in Kurundu Rata, and that the Kurundi Atthakatha, one of the three principal Sinhala commentaries, was composed there.^{[note 2]}

The Saratthadipani Vinayatthakatha refers to this tradition as follows:

Kurundivelli viharo nama atthi tattha katatta Kurunditi namam jatanti vadanti

Because the work was composed at a monastery called Kurundivelli Vihara, it came to be known by the name “Kurundi”.

(Source: Saratthadipani Vinayatthakatha)^[8]

The Samantapasadika Vinayatthakatha also mentions this tradition.

Samvannanam tam ca samarahaneta
tassa Maha-Atthakatha sariram,
katva Mahapaccariyam tatheva
Kurundinamaadisu vissutasu

Beginning this exposition properly,I take the Maha-Atthakatha as the body of the commentary, together with the well-known commentaries such as the Mahapaccari and Kurundi.

(Source: Samantapasadika Vinayatthakatha, Parajika section – Atthakathacariya Buddhaghosa Maha Thera)

Professor Gunapala Malalasekera states that the frequent references to the Sinhala Kurundi commentary in the Samantapasadika Vinayatthakatha suggest that it was mainly related to the disciplinary rules of the Vinaya and may have been composed with the participation of monks who were specialists in Vinaya.^[9]

This tradition is also reflected in a modern devotional verse composed for the veneration of Kurundi Vihara:

Lankaya uttaradisaya samujjalantam
Tam cetiyam ca kuruvindupalēhi baddham
Yasmin Kurundi-Vinayatthakatha kata tam
Vandami vissuta Kurundi-Viharamaggam

I venerate that renowned Kurundi Vihara in the northern region of Lanka, the stupa bound with kuruvinda stone, where the Kurundi Vinaya commentary was composed.

(Kurundi Maha Vihara Vandana Gatha, Kurundiviharavamsaya, 2023)

According to ancient Pali literary sources, several terms have been used to refer to Kurundi Vihara. These include Kurunna, Kurundi, Kurundī, Kurunda Vihara, Kurundachullaka, Kurundankundiya, Kurundapillaka, Kurundavāpi, Kurundavāsoka Vihara, Kurundavelu, Kurundivelli, Kurundiya Vihara and Kurunda Pāsaka. Ven. Hattotuwe Indaratana Thera states that the word Kurundi appears 102 times in the Samantapāsādikā Vinayaṭṭhakathā composed by Buddhaghosa Maha Thera.^[10]

In addition, the word Kurundi also appears in the Kankhāvitaraṇī, and it appears that the references to Kurundi in both the Samantapāsādikā and Kankhāvitaraṇī refer to the Kurundi Atthakatha.^[11]

Both the Samantapāsādikā and the Manorathapūraṇī mention a monk named Phussamitta Thera who is described as Kurundakavāsi (a resident of Kurundaka).^[12]

The Mahavamsa further records that King Aggabodhi I (561–595 CE) renovated and expanded the monastery. He is said to have constructed a reservoir named Kurundu Wewa, as well as a coconut plantation extending three yojanas in length which was donated to the monastery. In addition, a paddy field known as Mahasiva was granted for cultivation, together with one hundred monastic attendants. The chronicle also states that a monastery named Ambilapanna and a village bearing the same name were established nearby and donated to ascetic monks belonging to the Mahavihara tradition.^{[quote 2][13]}

According to R. L. Brohier, another monastery was constructed below the embankment of the ancient Kurundu Wewa by King Sanghabodhi I (246–248 CE). Much later, during the first regnal year of King Dappula V (965 CE), the Buddhist monastic order was re-established at one of the monasteries in the complex.^[14]Furthermore, King Aggabodhi IV (662–678 CE), also known as Siri Sangabo III, is recorded to have constructed a mansion at the Kurundapillaka Pirivena.^{[quote 3]}The Mahavamsa also records that King Dappula II and his queen Sena renovated a building of the Prachina Vihara (the eastern monastery). The village of Usvitigama belonging to the monastery was also restored and reorganized.^[15]

According to Henry Parker, the Prachina Vihara mentioned in the chronicle may correspond to the ancient Kurundi monastery located on Piyangala Hill.^[16]Even today the area is locally known as Kurundanmale Piyankallu. According to Ellawala Medhananda Thera, the name Piyangala may have gradually evolved into the present form Piyankallu.^[17]

King Mahinda III (801–805 CE), the son of King Dappula III, is recorded to have visited Kurangama, also known as Kurundiya, together with his mother and daughter. An inscription established by the king himself confirms that he settled a dispute concerning the waters of Kurundu Wewa during this visit.^[18]The Mahavamsa Tika (Vamsatthappakasini) also records that during the reign of King Dathopatissa, a monk named Dathavedhaka, who resided at the Kurundachullaka Pirivena belonging to Jetavana Vihara, composed certain compound expressions of a different grammatical form.^[19]

The Mahavamsa further records that King Vijayabahu I (1065–1120 CE) restored the Kurundi Maha Vihara, which had fallen into decline due to the Chola invasions.^{[quote 4]}During the reign of King Parakramabahu II, the South Indian invader Kalinga Magha established fifteen military camps across the island, among which Kurundiya is also mentioned. These camps were later liberated by the forces of King Parakramabahu II according to the Mahavamsa and the Nikaya Sangrahaya.^{[20][21][22][23]}

The Pujavaliya records that the invader Chandrabhanu, who had earlier been defeated by King Parakramabahu II, returned again with forces from South India and Javaka soldiers. Together with a group of Sinhalese forces at Kurundu and surrounding areas, he advanced and established a camp at Yapahuwa.^{[quote 5]}However, with the devastating invasion of Kalinga Magha, which lasted for about twenty-one years, the royal capital of Rajarata shifted towards the south-western regions of Sri Lanka. As a result, many of these regions gradually became depopulated, and the sacred sites in the area eventually fell into abandonment and became overgrown with forest.^[24]In the later period, during the Dutch colonial era, Vellala Tamil communities brought from South India as labourers were settled in these previously depopulated regions. According to the Irish civil servant John Penry Lewis, many archaeological sites were damaged during this period as buildings were dismantled and portable materials removed from the area.^[25]Considering the condition of the site, the government declared the area an archaeological reserve in 1933 through Government Gazette No. 7981.^[26]

This archaeological site, which extends over approximately 420 acres, was constructed according to the Pabbata Vihara monastic tradition, an ancient Buddhist monastic architectural tradition. A central quadrangle located on an elevated ground contains four principal religious structures: the stupa, the Bodhighara (Bodhi shrine), the Pratimaghara (image house), and the Uposathaghara (chapter house). Surrounding this quadrangle is a circumambulatory path, while residential and other non-religious buildings are scattered across the lower ground between the circumambulatory path and the outer boundary marked by a water trench. This spatial organization represents a characteristic feature of the Pabbata Vihara monastic tradition. The tradition is generally considered to have been influenced by Mahayana Buddhist architectural concepts.^[27]A comprehensive theoretical explanation of this Buddhist monastic architectural tradition is presented in the treatise Manjusri Bhasita Vastuvijñana Shastra.^{[note 3]}

According to the descriptions given in this text, the most important buildings of a monastery belonging to the Pabbata Vihara tradition are arranged within a central courtyard according to a predetermined architectural plan. In the first chapter of the text, twelve fundamental types of monastic establishments are described, along with explanations of several of them. These are identified as Hastyarama, Simharama, Dandarama, Padmarama, Sitalagulma, Bhikshunyaram, Gokularama, Anvarama, Bhujangaenarama, Chakrarama, Hamsapaksha, and Navakara.These twelve types of monasteries are further divided into two architectural planning categories known as Vastu-salasu and Vikranta, resulting in a total of twenty-four monastic layout types. The naming of these monastic types appears to derive from the forms of animals or symbolic shapes represented in their architectural layouts. For example, a layout resembling the shape of an elephant is referred to as Hastyarama. According to Walter Marasinghe, the arrangement of the Panchavasa (five principal monastic structures) may have been a key factor influencing the naming of these architectural types.When identifying these plans, particular attention is paid to the positions of the four principal sacred buildings located within the central courtyard. Based on the spatial distribution of the principal religious structures at Kurundi Vihara, the monastery can be identified as conforming to the Hastyarama architectural type, more specifically the Hastyarama layout with an eastern gateway.^[28]

Comparative analysis of the ground plans of Pabbata Vihara monasteries confirms that Kurundi Vihara in Mullaitivu follows a layout similar to those of other ancient monasteries of the same tradition, including Vessagiriya in Anuradhapura and Pulukunawa in Ampara. Another distinctive feature is that Kurundi Pabbata Vihara is the northernmost example of a Pabbata Vihara monastery recorded in Sri Lanka.

Among the twenty-four monastic layout types, the Hastyarama type represented at Kurundi Vihara is described in detail in the Manjusri Bhasita Vastuvijñana Shastra.^{[quote 6]}

According to the text, buildings within a monastery are classified into two categories: Mukhya (principal) and Gauna (secondary). Five structures belong to the principal category. These include four major sacred buildings—namely the Chaitya (stupa), Bodhi-veshma (Bodhi shrine), Pratimalaya (image house), and Sabha (chapter house)—together with the Prasada, the residential building used by the monks.^{[note 4]}

Although the specific placement of these buildings may vary depending on the type of Pabbata monastery, certain general architectural principles can be observed regarding their spatial arrangement. According to the architectural treatise, the positioning of buildings within the monastery is generally determined by the orientation of the principal entrance. Accordingly, the first structures encountered by devotees entering the sacred precinct are typically the Chaitya and the Bodhi tree shrine. An examination of the spatial arrangement of the sacred buildings within the central courtyard of Kurundi Vihara confirms that this layout conforms to the principles described in the architectural treatise.^[30]In the design of Pabbata-type monasteries, the fundamental basis is a predetermined conceptual ground plan. In this system, the designated land area is divided into either nine or twenty-five square sections known as kosta. A nine-square architectural grid is referred to as a Pitha, while a twenty-five-square grid is known as an Upapitha. Each square within such a grid is typically named after the presiding architectural deity associated with that space. Within this system, the central square of the Pitha is specifically reserved for Brahma.^[31]

The squares or divisions represented within the Vastu Mandala are allocated for different buildings within the monastic complex. The principal monastic type organized according to the Upapīṭha plan is the Hastyārāma type, which is also represented at Kurundi Vihara. Depending on the orientation of the principal entrance, there are four variations of the Hastyārāma type and four variations of the Hastivikrantha type, resulting in eight distinct architectural layouts.Accordingly, in this monastic design the five principal buildings are positioned in relation to the points where the limbs of a large standing elephant symbolically touch the ground.^[33]

Thus, in monasteries belonging to the Hastyārāma type with an eastern gateway—such as the Pabbata Vihara at Kurundi Kanda—the locations of the principal sacred buildings are described in the Manjusri Bhasita Vastuvijñana Shastra according to the Upapīṭha Vastu Mandala as follows:

The Hastyārāma with an eastern gateway is planned as follows: the assembly hall (Sabha-shala) is placed at the Brahma position; the Bodhi shrine is assigned to the Vitatha position; the stupa (Chaitya) is placed in the Ishana position; the image house (Pratimalaya) in the Sugriva position; and the monastic residence (Prasada) in the Rudra-raja section. Thus the Panchavasa are specifically arranged.

(Marasinghe, Walter (2014). Manjusri Bhasita Vastuvijñana Shastra (Nagari text and Sinhala translation) (in Sinhala). p. 51.)

According to the Upapīṭha Vastu Mandala of Kurundi Vihara, the stupa is located within the Isha square, the Bodhighara within the Vitatha square, the image house within the Sugriva square, the Uposathaghara within the Brahma square, and the monastic residence (Prasada) within the Rudra square.

Architectural evidence indicates that the principal entrance leading to the sacred central courtyard of the Pabbata Vihara located on Kurundi Kanda was situated on the northern side of the hill. This stairway, which appears to have been constructed using laterite blocks together with granite stones, extended from the northern slope of the hill towards the southern end of the embankment of Kurundi Vapi, the ancient reservoir located nearby.^[34]

Based on the visible remains, the stairway appears to have been an impressive and aesthetically significant architectural feature. Structural remains of the stairway can still be observed at several locations along the northern slope of the hill. At two points, the upper sections of two pairs of guardstones that once flanked the stairway are still visible. One pair of guardstones near the base of the hill is positioned with a distance of approximately 4.5 metres between them, while another pair located several metres higher has a separation of about 3.9 metres.

The exposed guardstones measure approximately 40 × 16 centimetres in width and thickness and appear to be plain, undecorated stone slabs. These guardstones closely resemble similar examples found in Pabbata Vihara monasteries in and around Anuradhapura. The steps themselves appear to have been constructed primarily using laterite blocks. However, the entrance stairway has not yet been fully excavated or exposed through archaeological excavation.^[35]

In accordance with the common architectural layout of a Pabbata Vihara monastery, which became particularly prevalent during the latter part of the Anuradhapura period, the sacred structures of such monasteries were constructed on an elevated terrace above the ground level that contained surrounding auxiliary structures. This terrace may be referred to as the courtyard containing sacred buildings or the central courtyard. Important sacred buildings such as the stupa, image house, Bodhi tree shrine, and the Uposatha hall where monastic disciplinary acts were conducted were established within this enclosure. Following this tradition, the central courtyard of the Kurundi Kanda Vihara was also constructed in a similar manner.

When examining the layouts of many Pabbata Vihara monasteries including Kurundi Vihara, which were established in a circular formation outside the ancient city of Anuradhapura, it can be identified that they were constructed in accordance with the descriptions found in ancient architectural treatises.^[36]

The summit of Kurundi Kanda was enclosed on all four sides with laterite stone ramparts, and a leveled area was created within it to establish the sacred courtyard. When considered along the east–west axis, this central courtyard measures approximately 120 metres in length and about 100 metres in width. As mentioned earlier, the ramparts were constructed in an organized manner using laterite blocks. Their average height is about 3 metres, although the height varies slightly depending on the natural terrain.

The main access to this central courtyard containing the sacred structures is located on the eastern side of the terrace. About 20 metres from the southern end of the eastern boundary, an entrance stairway is positioned, consisting of seven stone steps approximately two metres in width. According to the characteristics described in the Manjusri Bhasita Vastuvadyasastra, the central courtyard of the Kurundi Kanda monastery originally had two gateways. The principal gateway (Mahadvāra) faced east, while the secondary gateway (Paksha-dvāra or small gate) was positioned to the north. Accordingly, the main gateway was likely used for entering the monastery, while the secondary gateway was used for exiting the courtyard after completing acts of worship.^[37]

The stupa located at the northeastern corner of the sacred central courtyard of Kurundi Kanda Vihara had remained in such a ruined state that earlier reports indicate it was difficult even to recognize it as a stupa. This significant monument was systematically excavated in 2021 by the Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka with the assistance of the Sri Lanka Army. By March 2023, conservation work on the stupa had been completed by the Department of Archaeology. At present, this stupa is the most significant and visually striking architectural monument visible at the Kurundi Kanda Vihara.^[38]

The Kurundi Stupa is considered the oldest stupa in Sri Lanka constructed using laterite blocks.^{[note 5]} Therefore, it can be identified as a unique stupa among the ancient monuments of Sri Lanka. According to the present condition, the stupa has a diameter of approximately 13 metres and a circumference of about 40.6 metres at terrace level.Evidence observed prior to its restoration (September 2021) indicated that treasure hunters had excavated and damaged the top of the stupa. There are also reports suggesting that during the period when the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam were active in the region, the summit of the stupa—being the highest point in the area—was used for military activities.Before conservation, the height of the stupa was approximately 4 metres. The pesā walalu (moulded basal rings) of the base structure were constructed up to a height of about 260 centimetres, above which the stupa dome was built. Due to natural causes as well as human interference, a considerable portion of the upper part of this sacred monument has been destroyed. However, evidence observed in certain sections of the structure, including traces of plaster, confirms that the stupa had originally been coated with lime plaster and finished with a white surface.^[39]

According to Professor Malinga Amarasinghe, a recognized scholar of ancient Sri Lankan art history and a professor of archaeology at the University of Kelaniya, the stupa revealed after excavation is the only stupa in Sri Lanka currently known to have had a lotus-shaped (padmakara) form. However, he further notes that during the conservation process the distinctive lotus-shaped characteristics of the stupa were unfortunately lost.^[40]The stupa terrace on which the monument stands measures approximately 20.7 metres in length from east to west and 19.4 metres in width from north to south, with a height of nearly two metres above ground level. This terrace was also constructed entirely using laterite blocks. Laterite stones measuring approximately 35 × 32 × 10 centimetres were used in the construction.Clear archaeological evidence indicates that all four sides of this stupa terrace had been decorated with finely shaped mouldings and carvings made of laterite blocks. Remains of these decorative elements can still be observed up to a height of about 190 centimetres above ground level. Evidence also suggests that an elephant wall (Hastivedika), a typical architectural element surrounding ancient stupas, once existed around all four sides of the terrace. However, it is now largely destroyed. Architectural analysis indicates that the main terrace was first constructed without decorative elements, and these external ornamental features were added later. Excavations revealed that over time these later additions had gradually separated from their original structural bindings.^[41]

Evidence from remaining fragments of lime plaster indicates that during the period of construction the entire decorative surface of the stupa terrace had been covered with approximately 2 cm thick lime plaster to enhance its appearance.The stairway leading to the stupa terrace is located on the western side of the terrace. Accordingly, a visitor approaching the stupa would enter the terrace while facing east. Although many stupas commonly have entrances on all four sides, this particular stupa has only a single entrance, possibly due to the natural terrain of the site.^[42]

After ascending two stone steps facing the stupa, the entrance path divides into two directions to the left and right. Each stairway, about one metre in width, consists of 13 stone steps measuring approximately 330 centimetres in length with a gradient of about 30 degrees. By ascending these steps, visitors could enter the upper terrace surrounding the stupa.Accordingly, a devotee entering the terrace using the left stairway could perform ritual circumambulation (pradakshina) and then descend using the opposite stairway. The design of the stairways allows visitors to enter and exit the terrace without turning their backs towards the stupa.Although the terrace itself was constructed with laterite blocks, stone slabs were laid beginning approximately 75 centimetres from the sand embankment of the stupa and extending up to about 175 centimetres around it. Similar features can be observed in stupas such as the Kanthaka Cetiya, Katusaya, and Indikatu Seya at Mihintale. This architectural characteristic is commonly found in many small and medium-sized stupas constructed during the 7th–8th centuries CE.Grinding marks can be seen on 18 of these stone slabs. Scholars believe that these marks were created by devotees who ground medicinal substances or other ritual offerings while engaging in acts of worship at the stupa.^[43]

When examining the sand courtyard surrounding the stupa, the northern boundary can be clearly identified. From the base of the stupa terrace, this sand courtyard extends approximately 3.1 metres in width.Several remaining stone structures can also be observed within this sandy courtyard. Among them is a stone slab believed to have been used as a step near the stupa stairway, measuring approximately 110 × 20 × 15 centimetres. Another stone artifact with a smooth upper surface and a shallow channel carved near its edge can also be seen; this structure measures about 50 × 40 × 25 centimetres.Additionally, a broken stone slab measuring about 120 centimetres in length, 38 centimetres in width, and 14 centimetres in height—currently split into three pieces—can also be observed within the sand courtyard.^[45]

While walking clockwise around the stupa terrace, a rectangular structure measuring approximately 240 centimetres in length, 180 centimetres in width, and about 90 centimetres in height can be observed on the north-western side. Scholars believe that this structure had been installed as a flower altar used for offerings.^[46]

During the excavation of the stupa, a stone pillar broken into three sections was discovered on the eastern side of the stupa terrace. This pillar is identified as a Yupa Stambha (sacrificial or ceremonial pillar), also referred to in architectural texts as a Gaja-stambha, meaning “a pillar used for tethering an elephant”.^[47]

This pillar measures approximately 160 centimetres in length and has an octagonal shape. The upper end is finely crafted with a lotus-shaped design. This feature is considered one of the identifying characteristics of stupas belonging to the Abhayagiri monastic tradition in Sri Lanka. The presence of this feature suggests the influence of the Abhayagiri tradition, which expanded rapidly after the middle period of the Anuradhapura era.During the excavation conducted by the Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka, the pillar was discovered placed directly on the Vajrāsana located on the stupa terrace. At one stage, certain groups attempted to claim that the upper part of the pillar represented a Shiva Lingam. However, when analyzed within its archaeological and architectural context, scholars have clearly indicated that it is a structural element associated with ancient Buddhist architecture. Historical and religious architectural evidence confirms that there is no credible basis for interpreting it as a Hindu religious symbol.^[48]

Near the location where the broken Yupa pillar was discovered, in the central eastern area of the stupa terrace, there is a carefully crafted stone slab measuring approximately 260 centimetres in length, 110 centimetres in width, and about 20 centimetres in thickness. Over time this slab has broken into three sections. It is placed on a brick support structure approximately 55 centimetres in height. The surface of the slab has been smoothly polished.Archaeological evidence suggests that this structure originally had a protective covering. Two well-crafted stone pillars measuring about 23 × 13 centimetres in cross-section and approximately two metres in height can still be seen on the left side of the slab at a distance of about 120 centimetres apart. Another pillar belonging to the same structure was discovered during excavation lying on a nearby slope.This structure can be clearly identified as a Vidurāsana or Vajrāsana. In early Buddhist tradition, before the widespread use of Buddha statues, the Vajrāsana was one of the symbolic representations used in Buddhist worship to signify the presence of the Buddha. The Vajrāsana symbolically represents the enlightenment (Bodhi) of the Buddha.^[49]

According to archaeological assessments, many archaeologists consider this Vajrāsana to be the oldest structure currently visible at the site. It is believed to belong to a period earlier than the construction of the stupa and the other architectural components of the monastery. Due to its sacred significance, it is possible that the structure was brought and installed at this location when the Kurundi Stupa was constructed.In later periods, certain modifications occurred due to human activities. Grinding marks can be observed on the surface of the slab, with about ten depressions of varying sizes. Scholars believe that devotees belonging to the Abhayagiri tradition later used this slab for grinding substances as part of ritual offerings. These marks may also indicate a decline in the earlier sacred significance attached to the Vajrāsana. Similar grinding marks can also be observed on several stone slabs found on the stupa terrace.^[50]

To the west of the stupa, slightly towards the left side, a square structure made of laterite stone can be seen in the sandy courtyard. It measures about 2 meters in length and width, with a height of about 40 cm and a depth of about 23 cm. Close examination reveals evidence that the surface had been plastered with lime.This structure can be identified as a foot-washing basin, which was used to collect water for devotees to wash their feet before entering the stupa courtyard to perform acts of veneration. Similar stone-built foot-washing basins are commonly found in ancient sacred sites in areas such as Anuradhapura, particularly at religious sites associated with the Abhayagiri monastic tradition.To the west of this basin, the remains of a foundation measuring about 320 cm in length and 310 cm in width can also be observed. This foundation was also constructed using laterite stones. However, sufficient archaeological evidence has not survived on the surface to clearly determine the function of this structure. Some scholars suggest that it may have been part of an architectural structure used to place ritual offerings during ceremonies conducted at the stupa. However, due to the lack of clear evidence, some scholars have expressed the alternative view that this structure may be a more recent construction.^[51]

Artifacts discovered during the excavation of the stupa and stupa courtyard at Kurundi Vihara^[52]

Kurundi Stupa (Appearance after archaeological excavation)

Lotus moulding of the stupa (northeastern quarter) Ruins of the elephant parapet of the stupa Broken Yupasthambha pillar divided into three fragments Broken Vidurasuna (Vajrasana) Brick structure possibly used for lime preparation Coin from the Polonnaruwa period (No. 1) Coin from the Polonnaruwa period (No. 2) Coin from the colonial period Clay floor tiles Flat clay roof tiles Ancient iron nail Decorative bricks Artifacts of various shapes 1 Artifacts of various shapes 2 Artifacts of various shapes 3

About 20 meters to the southwest of the Poya-ge (Uposatha house), the ruins of an image house, also referred to as a Patimaghara or Pratimagrha, can be observed. This structure has been established on a raised platform constructed using laterite stones. The platform measures about 26.5 meters in length and 17 meters in width, and rises approximately 1.2 meters above ground level.The image house, also known by various names such as Bimbalaya, Pratimalaya, and Pratimagrha, is recognized as one of the most prominent and significant buildings within a monastic complex after the stupa.A flight of steps has been constructed on the eastern side of the platform to provide access to the image house courtyard. The entrance, built using granite stones, is about 230 cm wide. At the location where the moonstone once existed at this entrance, a pit measuring approximately 1.7 meters in length and width and about 2.7 meters in depth was recorded. It is believed that this pit was dug by treasure hunters after breaking and removing the moonstone.During the initial archaeological excavations, it was reported that the moonstone, balustrades (korawak-gal), and stone steps had been broken and scattered. Fragments of the shattered moonstone can still be observed near the image house.^[53]

According to the available evidence, the radius of the granite moonstone was about 90 cm. The moonstone depicts only a lotus motif in the center, along with leaf patterns and flame designs. The balustrades are also plain and curved, without elaborate carvings, displaying simple decorative features. The front surfaces of the stone steps, however, are decorated with carvings.The granite balustrades and moonstone at the entrance are executed in a simple style without elaborate ornamentation. No evidence of guardian stones (muragal) associated with this entrance has been recorded during surface investigations.The staircase leads directly into the image house. The structure appears to have been designed following the architectural concept of a Gandhakuti (the perfumed chamber associated with the Buddha). The building measures approximately 15.6 meters in length and 8.2 meters in width.Evidence indicates the existence of another entrance leading into the vestibule (antarala). Remains of the stone doorway belonging to this entrance can still be observed. The upper lintel of the doorway, made of stone, is decorated with finely carved dwarf figures and other ornamental motifs.The layout of the vestibule, which measures about 7.6 meters in length and 4.2 meters in width, can be reconstructed based on the surviving stone pillars. In general, stone pillars measuring about 2.75 meters in height and with cross-sectional dimensions of approximately 26 × 20 cm were used in the construction of the image house. During the initial archaeological excavation, a total of 27 such pillars were recorded.^[56]

The inner sanctum (garbhagruha) of the image house measures about 8 meters in length and 8.2 meters in width. In the middle section of the western end of the sanctum, a lotus pedestal measuring approximately 75 × 47 × 25 cm has been placed. However, archaeological officers who conducted the initial excavations observed that this pedestal appears to have been displaced from its original position.Although no surface evidence of the Buddha statue that once stood in the sanctum survives today, it is believed that a standing Buddha image was originally installed here. The design of the image house suggests that the statue could have been circumambulated by devotees.On the laterite courtyard platform, fragments of tiles, bricks, and stone pillars used in the construction of the ancient image house can still be seen scattered around.^[57]

During the early 1980s, in the tenure of the esteemed minister Cyril Mathew, it is reported that a Hindu kovil (temple) was constructed within the premises of the image house by Hindu devotees. Later, around 2020, the site of the old image installation within the image house was again used to place Hindu Shiva icons, including a trishula. Evidence suggests that extremists converted the sacred Buddhist sanctum by constructing a floor of approximately 2 × 1.5 meters using Portland cement, placing the pedestal in the same location as the original lotus pedestal, and attempting to represent a Shiva lingam. The upper portion of the stone doorway's balustrade, once used in the Buddhist image house, was also altered during this period. Remains of a roof made from laterite and stones, which once covered the image house, still confirm that the structure had been roofed until recent times. The unauthorized constructions using cement and stone pillars were later removed, and the image house's Buddhist identity was confirmed by the Department of Archaeology.^[59]

Excavation of the image house revealed numerous artifacts, including a seated Buddha statue, a fragment of a standing Buddha statue, an Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva head, another Bodhisattva head, a Bodhisattva torso statue, a vajra fragment, a chakra symbol, and several small metal figurines.^[60]

Artifacts discovered during the excavation of the image house at Kurundi Vihara^[61]

Image house (post-excavation upper view)

Upper lintel of the entrance doorway Fragment of the stone moonstone at the entrance Small seated Buddha statue Fragment of a standing Buddha statue Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva head Another Bodhisattva head Bodhisattva torso statue Vajra fragment Ritual chakra Small metal figurine Small carved stone slab Tribhanga Bodhisattva torso

Approximately 60 meters north of the stupa lies the Bodhi Gharaya. The building has an overall circular plan, with the base measuring roughly 5 meters in diameter. The entrance doorway of this structure is oriented northwards, facing the stupa. Evidence indicates that the doorway was constructed using stone slabs with a width of 120 cm. The structure, which had grown over time with coverings, reaches a maximum height of approximately 110 cm. About 2.5 meters from the center, a first row of four stone slabs and a second row of eight stone slabs with a diameter of 5 meters from the center can be identified. Excavations carried out in 2021 revealed a two-tiered stone slab structure with each slab approximately 20 × 20 cm and a maximum height of 120 cm from the ground. Based on stone remnants scattered outside the second row, it is evident that the foundation of the Bodhi Gharaya, like other structures, was constructed using cabok stones.^[62]

Evidence suggests the presence of a small square architectural structure measuring approximately 3.6 × 2.7 meters to the south of the Bodhi Gharaya. Only foundation traces are visible. Similar constructions have been observed near the stupa, indicating that this may have been a subsidiary functional structure associated with the Bodhi Gharaya. No archaeological excavation has been carried out on the Bodhi Gharaya itself to date.^[64]

Among the important architectural components of the Pabbata Vihara is the 'Poya Geya', also known as the Uposathaghara. Ordinarily, the Poya Geya serves as the place where monks conduct Poya rituals and Vinaya-related activities. Additionally, it functions as a congregational hall for special occasions. Situated approximately 56 meters west of the stupa, the entrance of this structure faces east, aligning with the entrance of the stupa. The structure measures roughly 16.5 meters in length and 9 meters in width, adopting a square-like architectural plan.^[65]

Like other ancient monastic halls, this Poya Geya was constructed predominantly using stone slabs. Based on the original plan, the building consisted of four rows of six stone slabs each along the longer axis. Presently, 13 slabs remain preserved, with other fragments scattered within the hall area. Four original slabs remain intact, measuring approximately 32 × 35 cm with a height of 4 meters from the ground. Stone slabs on the outer periphery are slightly smaller than those in the central rows. Within the Poya Geya precinct, fragments of old laterite and stone bricks are dispersed, offering insights into the original design. Evidence indicates that the roof was constructed using clay and laterite tiles. Two locations within the hall show damage caused by unauthorized excavations by looters.^[67]

In addition to the main structures in the primary terrace, numerous architectural elements can be observed in the second terrace and beyond within the Kurundi Vihara complex.

The second terrace lies to the west of the sacred courtyard that covers the larger elevated area of the monastery. Following natural topographical features, the terrace was carefully planned and demarcated using cabok stones. According to measurements, this terrace is approximately 1.5 meters lower than the central terrace containing the sacred structures.^[68]

From the northwestern end of the central courtyard with sacred buildings to a distance of about 6 meters southwards, the second terrace extends, with its southern boundary reaching the southern edge of the sacred courtyard. Following the slope of the hill in a semi-circular layout, the terrace stretches approximately 100 meters westwards.^[69]

Situated on the second terrace, a pond lies to the west of a structure described as the Pilima Geya. The pond has an approximate depth of 5 meters from ground level, with dimensions of roughly 35 meters in length (east–west) and 23 meters in width (north–south). Compared to other Anuradhapura-period ponds, it is relatively large. The pond's boundaries are neatly constructed using cut cabok stones. It is believed that the water collected here supplied the daily water needs of the monks residing at Kurundi Vihara. Since the pond lacks a natural water source, scholars suggest that during the rainy season, water from the upper terrace and the second terrace would have flowed into it.^[70]

A significant number of other unrecognized architectural structures of varying shapes have been identified in the main terrace (primary terrace), the second terrace, and along the surrounding hill slopes. These include five structures in the main terrace, three unidentified buildings on the second terrace, and 19 other structures with a small pond scattered across the monastery grounds. While surface evidence is insufficient to determine the exact function of these structures, systematic archaeological excavations could provide a clearer understanding. Scholars suggest that these small structures may have functioned as residential cells for the monks. All these constructions utilize cabok stones at their base and are carefully aligned to follow the natural slope of the terrain.^[71]

According to the Mahavamsa, during the renovations and reconstruction of Kurundi Vihara by the first Agbo king, the Kurundi Wewa (reservoir) was constructed. This reservoir, also known as the Kurundi Vapi, is identified by C.W. Nicholas as the present-day Thannimuruppu Wewa.^{[quote 7]}

However, R.L. Brohier mentions two ancient reservoirs located near each other, known as Kuruntan Kulam and Thannimuruppu Kulam. It is further suggested that the present-day Kuruntan Kulam may correspond to the ancient Kurundi Wewa constructed by the first Agbo king.

The reservoir indicated in earlier maps at the Mitiyawatha river, referred to as Thannimuruppu Kulam, represents a significant ancient reservoir. Its strong ancient embankment stretches north to south. At present, it has deteriorated into two separate channels, one called Manalaru, and the main river of the embankment now directs additional water flow.

Currently, the entire pond area, including the embankment and ancient mound, is covered with dense vegetation. Until recently, the surrounding land remained overgrown and unnoticed, hiding this valuable ancient feature.

Another ancient reservoir, called Karutta Kulam, extends partially to the north and south. It was constructed by linking an embankment across a small channel fed by a tributary known as Vaanaru. In this way, Kuruntan Kulam, Thannimuruppu, and the channel of Mitiyawatha functioned in a combined hydraulic system.

The significance of these two ancient reservoirs is further enhanced by the fact that a portion of the water from the reservoir is directed via the embankment of Thannimuruppu Wewa through a 20-foot-wide canal to a designated water basin.

R.L. Brohier. Lankadiva Purathana Warimarga (in Sinhala). Vol. Parts 1, 2, and 3. ISBN 955-9185-07-1.

According to Henry Parker, the large reservoir constructed across the Nayaru valley is Thannimuruppu, while the smaller reservoir located two furlongs to the east near Kurundikanda (Kurundumale) is Kurundan Kulam. The Tamil term "Thannimuruppu" translates in Sinhala as "water channel." Parker also notes that before his visit, the Thannimuruppu Wewa was entirely uninhabited until located by his assistant S. Horton. Parker assigned the name Kurundan Kulam to the smaller reservoir near Kurundi Vihara based on an inscribed stone indicating the lower settlement area as "Kurungama." The Tamil translation of this name is "Kuruntan-oor."^[72][73]

Parker’s notes also indicate that this small reservoir, referred to as Kurundan Kulam, was constructed to meet the daily water needs of monks and nearby settlements rather than for agricultural purposes.^[75]The present-day Kurundan Kulam is located at a higher elevation than the Thannimuruppu Wewa (ancient Kurundi Wewa), making it unsuitable to supply water to Kurundi Vihara or the adjacent Kurungama settlement. Archaeological experts suggest that a smaller nearby reservoir was therefore constructed to supply water to the Vihara and the surrounding community. According to Pulendran Nesan, the area identified by Parker as Kurundan Kulam is locally called Vilatikulam (Divul Wewa). From the embankment of the Thannimuruppu Wewa, the Weli Oya valley could irrigate over 12,000 acres along both banks, confirming the identification of this major ancient irrigation work as the Kurundi Wewa constructed by the first Agbo king. C.W. Nicholas similarly identifies the ancient Kurundi Vapi constructed by the first Agbo king as the present-day Thannimuruppu Wewa.^[76][77]

At the northern foot of the hill where Kurundi Vihara is situated lies the ancient Kurundi Wewa. This irrigation system was significantly expanded and renovated after 2010. Evidence from existing ruins and archaeological remains indicates that a route from Kurundugama village to Kurundi Vihara passed along the embankment of this ancient reservoir. The main terrace entrance of Kurundi Vihara extends northward from the central mound and connects with the southern edge of the present-day Kurundi Wewa embankment. Accordingly, traveling approximately 1,200 meters along the reservoir embankment provides access to the northern reservoir outlet. From the northern edge, the remnants of the ancient stone bridge extend about 170 meters north.This stone bridge, aligned from east to west, was constructed along a channel flowing from the ancient reservoir. The channel continues about 25 meters north, joining the main east-west flowing channel. This suggests that the bridge was intended to create a land connection between the main east-west channel and the area in front of the reservoir, i.e., between the southern embankment of the reservoir and the adjacent lands. According to a 1:63,360 scale map revised by the Survey Department of Lanka in 1936, a channel existed from a small reservoir called Malawarayang Kulam, located north of Kurundan Kulam Wewa, to Kurundi Wewa. The map confirms that this stone bridge was built along that channel.^[78]

In general, the bridge remnants are spread across a 16-meter-long and 7-meter-wide section. Current evidence suggests that the bridge was at least 10 meters in length with an approximate width of 3 meters. Many of the stones and stone slabs used for construction have been displaced over time, some having been repurposed for later constructions. Observations show that stones were moved to facilitate tractor access along the channel north of the bridge. Analysis of the site suggests that the bridge was established by leveling the riverbed on both sides of the channel, placing foundation stones, and then laying transverse and longitudinal stone slabs to complete the bridge.The northern, wider section of the bridge shows two parallel rows of foundation stones separated by approximately 130 centimeters, while the longer section has four rows with about 2 meters spacing. During construction, the bridge was laid over eight foundation stones with transverse stone slabs. Current evidence indicates that the maximum height of these short foundation stones is about 150 cm, with dimensions of approximately 30x24 cm. Small tenons measuring 6x6 cm were carved on top to secure the transverse stone slabs firmly. The transverse slabs, connected to the tenons, have dimensions of about 8x8 cm. Although these longitudinal slabs are no longer visible, they are estimated to have been about 2 meters long, with transverse slabs approximately 2.5 meters in length.^[79]

Unauthorized excavations near the western edge by treasure hunters have revealed a trench approximately 2 meters long, 2.5 meters wide, and 1.3 meters deep, causing some foundation stones to shift. Considering the location of the bridge remnants, it is evident that this structure served as a connection from the industrial zone associated with ancient Kurundugama to the village itself. During dry periods, it allowed travel from the industrial zone to Kurundugama on solid ground, while in the rainy season, water from the reservoir channel often limited direct access. The bridge, given its size and construction, could support standard carts and oxen safely. Experts also suggest that it facilitated limited transport between Kurundugama village and Kurundi Vihara during rainfall.Among ancient stone bridges reported in the region, the Kurundugama stone bridge stands out as one of the northernmost. It may have also played a role in connecting local industrial production zones developed in the late Anuradhapura period to national and international trade networks via coastal routes, facilitating transport of raw materials and processed goods. Despite this, the bridge has not been subject to formal archaeological excavation.^[81]

To the north of the hill where Kurundi Vihara is located, north of the northern embankment of the ancient Kurundi Wewa, lies the area of the ancient metallurgical and industrial production zone associated with Kurundugama village. Archaeological remains are dispersed across this zone, indicating its past activity. The industrial zone was situated on the land between the northern end of the Kurundi Wewa embankment and the ancient stone bridge.The section of land north of the current reservoir outlet, created during recent restoration works, belongs to this ancient industrial production zone, as confirmed by scattered archaeological remains of significance. During modern reservoir renovation, cultural sand layers containing archaeological artifacts were removed up to approximately 68 feet from the surface and relocated to newly constructed embankments north of the reservoir. Although fragments such as ancient clay pot sherds, slag (yabor), and other remnants were identified, their original context has been lost, resulting in a total loss of archaeological value in those removed sections.Based on remaining evidence, the minimum estimated extent of the site covers an area approximately 110 meters in length and 90 meters in width (around 9,900 square meters). Within this, an area of about 72 meters long and 50 meters wide (around 3,600 square meters) was cleared during sand relocation for the construction of the new reservoir outlet. Due to this destructive intervention, at least 230–250 cm of sand deposits containing cultural and archaeological material were removed. Currently, the remaining archaeological area of the sand mound has an approximate extent of 47 meters by 37 meters (1,739 square meters) with cultural deposits still present.^[82]

On the southern edge of this mound, modern construction removed sand for the reservoir outlet, exposing stratigraphy that allows easy identification of archaeological deposits. Measurements indicate several sand layers approximately 230–250 cm thick (about 68 feet), representing cultural sand deposits. The upper layer, 60–75 cm (around 22.5 inches) thick, contains significant archaeological remains related to ancient iron production. These include iron slag (yabor), clay pot fragments, brick pieces, and other material used in smelting. Morphological analysis of the remaining clay pots suggests a tentative date of 9–10 centuries CE.Consequently, scholars propose that this industrial production zone was contemporaneous with the construction or active use of Kurundi Vihara on the hill. Beneath this cultural sand layer, several additional layers contain clay pot sherds, brick fragments, bricks, ash, and stones dating to the late Anuradhapura period. On the eastern edge of the zone, a sand deposit approximately 30–45 cm deep and 10–15 cm thick has been observed, containing fragments of clay pots and other cultural materials.In the remaining western and northwestern portions of the mound, fragments related to metallurgical activities, such as furnace wall pieces, pipes, charcoal, and ash, are dispersed. Based on these artifacts, it is evident that furnaces for iron smelting existed at this site. Covering an area of about 150 square meters, there may have been 10–15 furnaces in operation. The density and distribution of these cultural deposits indicate that the site functioned as a highly active industrial production zone, albeit for a limited period.Several locations around Kurundugama village and the hill of Kurundi Vihara show traces of iron ore concentration, though evidence of smelting activity is confirmed only in certain areas. The availability of iron-rich sand (yapas) in Kurundi hill and surrounding zones would have facilitated metallurgical production, explaining the high activity of iron production workshops at this site. According to the administrative report by former Archaeological Commissioner H.C.P. Bell in 1905, this area was identified as the industrial production zone associated with ‘Kurundannur’ or Kurundugama. Based on current archaeological evidence, this land has been recognized as a zone closely connected to the settlement of Kurundugama village and its associated industrial production activities.^[83]

The Kurundi Slab (Fragmentary) Inscription is a stone inscription written in Medieval Sinhala and dated to the late 10th century CE. It has been identified as a *kathikavath*-type inscription belonging to the reign of King Udaya IV. The term “fragmentary” refers to the fact that the inscription had broken into several pieces. When the Department of Archaeology discovered it at the entrance of an ancient image house within the Buddhist monastic complex located below the embankment of Kurundi Wewa, the slab had already been broken into approximately nine large and small fragments.

The inscription was first mentioned in 1887 in the report titled Report on the Kanakarayan-aru and Eastern Nay-aru Valleys by Henry Parker (p.314).

Sanghabodhi I (A.D. 246–248) built a vihara below the embankment. At a considerably later date, around A.D. 965, Dappula V came here and re-established the monks of one of the viharas. Mahinda III (A.D. 997–1013), in the eighth year of his reign, together with his mother(?) and daughter, visited the tank and erected a long inscription on a large stone slab at the vihara originally built by Sanghabodhi and restored by Mahinda. This inscription is one of the longest in the island. Unfortunately, owing to damage to the surface bearing the letters, many words are now indistinct. The inscription mainly contains a set of rules to be observed by the monks residing there, similar to those recorded in the Mihintale slab inscriptions. It also refers to several general matters, including disputes affecting cultivation connected with the 'King's Great Tank' (which appears to be Thannimurippu). The king, who declares himself to be the author of the inscription, further notes that any doubts or uncertainties regarding the characters of the record should be disregarded and the regulations followed.

Fragments of pottery may be seen in the small water channels in the area where the town or large village called Kurungama was established below the embankment of Kurundan Kulam.

(Henry Parker. Report on the Kanakarayan-aru and Eastern Nay-aru Valleys (1887).)

^[84]

In 1895, J. P. Lewis also reported this inscription in his work Manual of the Vanni Districts. However, he noted that the slab, which had been intact when first seen by Parker, had already broken into three pieces by the time he encountered it. According to a footnote, this observation was made on 19 September 1889, about three years after Parker had first recorded the inscription.^[85]H. C. P. Bell, the Archaeological Commissioner at the time who provided an important account of the Kurundi archaeological site, stated that he was unable to locate the large slab inscription mentioned by Lewis in the Manual of the Vanni Districts.^[86]According to the Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of Ceylon (1949), attempts were made during the 1931 survey conducted to declare Kurundanmalai an archaeological reserve to locate this inscription, but these efforts were unsuccessful. The inscription was later rediscovered in 1949 by Professor Charles Godakumbura. By that time it had broken into several fragments due to the activities of treasure hunters and others.Professor Godakumbura copied the inscription, noting that it originally contained about 19 lines, of which only around 16 lines survived in fragmentary form. This was later reported by Sirimal Ranawella.^[87][88]

Until recent times, the estampage of the inscription published consisted clearly of three fragments. The edition titled Kurundanmale Kabili Vu Puwaru Lipiya, published by Professor Sirimal Ranawella in 2004, is based on this estampage copy. It is therefore believed that officials of the Department of Archaeology copied the inscription sometime between 1889 and 1905 before the slab broke into numerous pieces.However, for unknown reasons the lower portion of the inscription had not been copied in the early record. As a result, Senarath Paranavitana interpreted the inscription mainly based on the upper portion of the estampage. Ranawella’s later edition also relied largely on Paranavitana’s interpretation. Paranavitana further confirmed Henry Parker’s observation that the inscription contained a set of monastic regulations similar to those found in the Mihintale slab inscriptions.^[89]

In 2021, during a field investigation carried out by the Department of Archaeology, the inscription was rediscovered. It was confirmed that the inscription consists of a much larger number of lines than previously assumed. Contrary to the 19 lines suggested by Professor Sirimal Ranawella, it was found that the inscription contains not less than 34 lines previously identified by the Department of Archaeology, and at least 40 additional lines from the recently identified lower section, making a total of about 75 lines. The script and language of the inscription have been identified as belonging to the mid-10th century Sinhala language.The inscription is dated to the 8th regnal year of a king bearing the royal title Siri Sangabo. According to scholarly opinion, this ruler is identified as King Udaya IV (reigned 946–954 CE).^[90]

Text (Transliteration)

1. ... ... ... ... ... yasa desin dasa athhi pethirä raja kala abha salamevan maharadhu puth
2. ... ... maduḷ randana rajliyehi mini vuṭunuyen siya mundun pehaya lakdiva polo yona parapu
3. ren himivū thuma sarana niya rasin an raja mundun bisesvu tik tedin hiru pala kevin mehesuru daḷ dæpin uvinindu raja viratin surindu pabanda denen dinisuru sat
4. sethin kithisuru paṇa sarin suraguru seba guṇen nisayuru ... ... nan sarin kapturu rū sarin kadap kuluna resen bosathu meruvan suva sarin sama
5. ... ... ... ... hun abha salamevan maharajhu thuma sat længu paḷamuvana havuruduyehi æsela pun sand avap mas hi dasapak dav
6. ... ... sangaram siri sangbo raj mahaveherhi vat sirith visina siyathan saha ... sasanda thun nikahi mahasang vathhimiyan ...
7. ... ... pase evun van siyena pathe pothehi ara seyin akarvanu isa ... si hadawa sita pavathna kot me sila leba ...
8. ... ... siri sangbo abhaya maharaja agasudam nam vu sangbad apa mæniyan isa ... sirith sandaha niyamakin isa varad devu pareyā ...
9. ... ... kathū isa ... ya rakranugama yurehi abhaya giri nikā pilibendi kot sangaram siri sangbo raj mahaveher ...
10. ... ... nu kot atavanuyehi navaya sand avap mas diya vas davas daladagayi ... abhaya isiripav piyangal ...
11. ... ... nissan ha sasanda me veherat piyangalaṭ turu sirith isa vivarunen ekse kot than uvataka arvayi kæmi samiyan kala visi ek ...
12. ... ... ek pakak abhaya giri veher isa ek pakak me veherhi mahapahay isa thabanu kot vadalah vim kusalkæmi ...
13. ... ... gahanēhi seyin me nisagin sanitihan vu sirith isa meyat dun kæbali katayuthu se isagiya katayuthu isa minisnata kam ...
14. ... ... nat labanu divayuthu se isa ekse kot arvayi me veher thabanu kot vadala sirith pothhi ... sirith liyai satdevomi limi
15. me veher sirith me veherhi veher kæmiyan ... kæmiyan pilimageyi sirith pothhi ki seyin bud bathat gatha yuthu isa pilimageyi ham puda sirith seyi ... karanu isa ananda piyangalhi atīn dolos
16. ... ... pase avu vathhimiyan væsi himiyan visiya ...
17. ... ... ... ... ... ...
18. ... ... ... ... ... ...
19. ... ... ... ... ...

Content (Summary)

The inscription records a decree issued during the reign of Abha Salamevan (identified with King Udaya IV). It describes the establishment and regulation of monastic practices at the Sangharama of Siri Sangabo Raja Maha Vihara. The king personally inspected the customs and disciplinary regulations observed in the monastery and ordered that they be maintained according to the traditional practices recorded in written texts.

The decree also refers to the involvement of the three monastic fraternities (Maha Vihara, Abhayagiri, and Jetavana) and mentions earlier royal patrons associated with the monastery. Provisions were made for the management of temple properties, duties of monastic officials, and the preservation of written records of the monastic regulations.

Copies of these regulations were to be deposited both at the Abhayagiri Vihara and at the main monastic residence of the Kurundi monastery. Temple officials and attendants were instructed to continue religious services and offerings according to the established customs recorded in the monastery’s ritual manuals.

The inscription further notes that the record was written by an individual named Satdevomi.

Common name: Kurundi Stone Plate Inscription

Reign: King Udaya IV (946–954 CE)
Period: 10th century CE
Script: Medieval Sinhala

Language: Medieval Sinhala

(Source: G.S.,2004. Inscription of Ceylon. Volume V, Part II. Department of Archaeology. Ranawella, pp.221–224)

^[91]

The inscription belongs to the category of katikavata inscriptions, which record sets of regulations adopted by the consensus of Buddhist monks. It contains a set of rules agreed upon by the monastic community regarding a monastery named Abhaya–Isiripavi (identified with Siri Sangabo Vihara) affiliated with the Abhayagiri Vihara, as well as a meditation complex known as Ananda Piyangala attached to it. The inscription also refers to an earlier katikavata promulgated during the first regnal year of a king bearing the royal title Abha Salamevan.^[92]

A detailed discussion of this inscription has been provided by Professor Sirimal Ranawella.

The date of the inscription is given as the eighth regnal year of a king named Siri Sangabo, who was the son of a king also named Siri Sangabo and of a queen named Agasudam Sangbad. During the late Anuradhapura period two kings bearing this royal name ruled for eight years or more: Udaya IV (946–954) and Mahinda IV (956–972). The father of Udaya IV was Kassapa IV (898–914), while the father of Mahinda IV was Udaya III (935–938).

Among these two rulers, the latter can be excluded because inscriptions of Mahinda IV indicate that his mother was a chief queen named Deva (Devi Gonbiso Rajni). Therefore the king mentioned in our inscription should be identified as Udaya IV. However, the identification of his mother, named Agasudam Sangbad in this inscription, presents a difficulty since the chronicles record that the mother of Udaya IV was a queen named Tissa. It appears that, like many contemporary queens, she may have been known by several names.

For example, the mother of Dappula IV is known by the names Deva and Sangha. According to the chronicles and the Puliyankulam inscription of Dappula IV, the mother of Udaya III was a queen named Kita, yet the Polonnaruwa pillar inscription refers to her as Sangha. Likewise, the mother of Vijayabahu I is named Lokita in the chronicles, while in the Ambagamuwa rock inscription she is referred to as Deva (Dev-gon-rajni).

Our inscription is a katikavata, a set of disciplinary regulations adopted by the consensus of monks. It concerns a monastery belonging to the Abhayagiri establishment, referred to in the inscription as Abhaya Isiripav, which possessed a meditation complex named Ananda Piyangala. The text also refers to an earlier katikavata issued in the first regnal year of a king who ruled under the name Abha Salamevan. This earlier regulation appears to correspond to the katikavata recorded in the Kassapa Pokuna slab inscription of Sena III, the son of Udaya II, who also bore the royal title Abha Salamevan.

Had this inscription been preserved in its entirety, it would have been one of the most important records from the Northern Province dating to the tenth century. Even in its fragmentary state it is highly significant, as inscriptions discovered in the northern regions of the island are comparatively rare. Because the text of the inscription is not sufficiently clear, I do not attempt to provide an English translation.

(G. S. Ranawella (2004). Kurundanmale Fragmentary Slab Inscription, Inscription of Ceylon (in Sinhala). Vol. V, Part II. p. 211.)

According to scholarly interpretations, the earlier katikavata mentioned in the inscription may correspond to the regulation referred to in the Kaludiya Pokuna inscription of Sena III (938–946 CE). This earlier regulation was issued in the first regnal year of Sena III, and both Sena III and his father Udaya II (887–898 CE) used the royal title Abha Salamevan.^[93]Accordingly, the opening section of the inscription contains a eulogistic description of King Udaya IV. In addition to the monastery affiliated with the Abhayagiri establishment mentioned in the inscription, the text also records a consensus reached among the monastic community in association with the three monastic traditions, possibly indicating a form of monastic concord.The inscription further contains information about offerings, ritual practices, and customary observances carried out at the monastery and its image house by officials affiliated with the Abhayagiri Vihara.In the lower sections of the inscription, regulations are recorded concerning the Buddhist ritual offerings to be performed in the image house and the customary duties to be carried out for the monastic community. The inscription states that these regulations are to remain valid "as long as the sun and the moon endure."The inscription also mentions a queen named Sudhamma. Scholars identify her as the mother of Kassapa V, who was the brother of King Udaya IV responsible for issuing the inscription. The reference is particularly significant because mentions of mothers in Sri Lankan inscriptions are relatively rare.The inscription further indicates the existence of a Dalada-ge (a shrine associated with the Sacred Tooth Relic) and a large monastic library at the site.^[94]

According to the work Archaeological Survey of Ceylon: North-Central, Central and Northern Provinces, Annual Report 1905, it is recorded that an inscription attributed to King Mahinda III (also known as Mihindu), dated to the period 812–816 CE, once existed at the present Kurundi archaeological site.^[95][96]

It is recorded that King Mahinda III visited Kurangama together with his mother and daughter, and settled a dispute concerning the water of the Kurundi tank. The king is said to have personally caused the inscription to be engraved. The inscription reportedly also included an instruction that any mistakes in the lettering should not be corrected.

This account is described by R. L. Brohier in his work Lakdiva Purathana Varimarga as follows:

Below the embankment (of Kurundu Wewa), King Sanghabodhi I (246–248 CE) had constructed a monastery. Much later, King Dappula V restored the residence of monks in a monastery during the first year of his reign, probably around 965 CE. In the eighth year of his reign, King Mihindu III visited the tank (Kurundu Wewa) together with his mother and daughter, and caused a long stone inscription to be engraved on a large slab at the monastery originally built by Sanghabodhi and later restored by Mihindu. This inscription is said to have been one of the longest stone records found in Sri Lanka.

(R. L. Brohier. Lakdiva Purathana Varimarga (in Sinhala). Vol. Parts I, II and III. ISBN 955-9185-07-1.

However, this inscription is no longer present at the archaeological site and has not yet been rediscovered.

Another inscription associated with Kurundi Vihara was reported by Ellawala Medhananda Thera in his book Gaveshana Thula Gaveshana. According to his account, during an exploration of the site in the late 20th century, he observed an inscription carved on a fallen stone pillar near the ruins of an ancient structure on Kurundi hill.

He described the finding as follows:

After climbing about twenty yards up the hill, a flat terrace can be seen. On it are the stone foundations of what appears to be a small hall. Nothing else can clearly be identified there. However, a fallen stone pillar nearby may have belonged to the building. It measures about 12.6 feet in length. A line of letters is engraved on it, although some of the characters are worn. The inscription may roughly date to the 4th century CE, and the letters '...rakabala...' can still be read.

(Ellawala Medhananda Sthavira. Gaveshana Thula Gaveshana (in Sinhala). p. 62.

However, this inscription has also not yet been rediscovered.

In 2022, during excavations conducted by officers of the Department of Archaeology inside the image house (pilimage) of Kurundi Vihara, another stone inscription was discovered. It is engraved on a stone slab approximately 4 feet in length and about 1 foot in width, written in early Sinhala characters. About 14 lines of text have been recorded on the slab.Although the letters were already heavily weathered when the inscription was discovered, it has been tentatively dated to the 8th or 9th century CE. However, the contents of the inscription have not yet been formally published.^[97]

During the colonial period, the earliest report containing information about the Kurundi archaeological site was compiled by Henry Parker. In a session report prepared according to a government requirement, he revealed information about this location under the title "Kuruntanur-malai". According to Parker, Kuruntanur-malai, one of the largest archaeological sites in the region, is believed to be the place that became a sacred ground through the footprint of the Buddha during his second visit to Sri Lanka.While describing the landscape and the ancient remains found at the site, Parker notes that many of these structures had fallen into ruin. He further states that this destruction was not merely due to the natural passage of time but largely due to deliberate defacement carried out by later Tamil settlers who occupied the site.^[98]

I think it can be shown that the hill Kuruntanur-malai, or Piyangala, at the south end of the embankment, is the spot that is said to have been visited by Buddha on his second journey to Ceylon.....There are several ruins on the hill and at the back of the northern part of the bund; but they are all dilapidated, more through wilful defacement by the later Tamil occupants than by the action of time.

According to an inscription discovered below the embankment of Kuruntankulam tank, there existed a town or a large village called Kurungama (Tamil: Kuruntan-ur). This is further confirmed by the large number of pottery fragments found along the beds of the small watercourses below the embankment.Parker further explains that the Tamil inhabitants who later settled in the area constructed a Hindu temple at the site. In doing so, they demolished the vihara and other buildings that had been constructed by King Sanghabodhi and removed most of the bricks and stone materials from those earlier structures for use in the construction of the temple.^[99]

The town or large village that was built on the low side of the embankment of Kuruntan-kulam, and traces of which are to be seen in the fragments of pottery that line the beds of the smaller water courses, is termed Kurungama in the inscription. The Tamil name was Kuruntan-ur. The later Tamil residents built a temple here, and they demolished the Wihara built by Sanghabodhi and other buildings, and removed nearly all the bricks and stonework for it.

Discussing the antiquity of the sacred site, Parker suggests that both the Kurundi sacred site and the Kuruntankulam tank may date back to the middle of the 3rd century BCE. Because water supply would have been an essential requirement for the resident Buddhist monks, he implies that it would have been unlikely for the monastery to have been constructed before the tank itself.He further notes that the construction period of the Tannirmuruppu tank is uncertain, whether it was built at the same time or at a later period. Although the bricks used in the sluice structures of these irrigation works appear to reflect later characteristics, Parker suggests that they may have been added during subsequent renovations.Parker also expressed the view that Sinhala kings who ruled the island may have visited the Kurundi Vihara, sometimes suggesting that perhaps all kings had visited the site. This statement indicates the importance he attributed to the site. According to Parker, Kurundi Vihara can be understood as a sacred place comparable in importance to any other major sacred Buddhist site in Sri Lanka.^{[100] [101]}

In 1895, the colonial administrator J. P. Lewis published a handbook on the Vanni region, which included the districts of Vavuniya and Mullaitivu. A map attached to a relatively lengthy article he had earlier submitted in 1884 to the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Ceylon Branch) also indicates a location named Kurundimalai corresponding to the present location of Kurundi Vihara, along with a nearby place named Tannimuruppu.^[102]

Such references may therefore have served as important sources in identifying the location of Kurundi Vihara. Lewis did not fail to include information about Kurundi Vihara in the section dealing with the archaeology of the region in his work Manual of the Vanni Districts, which covers the Vanni area including Vavuniya and Mullaitivu.^[103]During his discussion of the Tannimuruppu tank, Lewis cites Henry Parker and notes that Kurundimalai is believed to be the place visited by the Buddha during his second visit to Sri Lanka. In the same work, Lewis provides about two pages of detailed descriptions regarding Kurundi Vihara and the related archaeological remains, also citing Parker's observations.^[104]At the beginning of this description, Lewis points out the extent of the monastery, stating that Kuruntanmalai or Piyangala Vihara, located at the southern end of the Kuruntankulam tank, was the largest and most extensive ancient monastery in the entire region.^[105]

Lewis also records an important note regarding the destruction of the monastic structures situated below the embankment in front of Kurundi tank. According to his account, stone pillars that once belonged to the Kurundanmalai monastery had been removed and used in the construction of the Mullivaikkal temple. He believed that this occurred as recently as 1858. Lewis further states that even the entrance of that temple had been constructed using carved stone pillars taken from Kurundi hill.^[106]

H. C. P. Bell, the first Archaeological Commissioner of Ceylon, published several pages of detailed descriptions about Kurundi Vihara and its surrounding region in the Annual Administrative Report of the Archaeological Commissioner issued in 1909 for the year 1905.In that report, Bell describes the ruins associated with this sacred site located at the foot of the hill known as Kuruntan-malai. The description provided by the Archaeological Commissioner is considered one of the most valuable early archaeological field reports documenting the Kurundi archaeological site.The detailed account suggests that Bell spent a considerable amount of time at the location while preparing his report. This is evident from the extensive descriptions included in the document regarding the ancient ruins located on the hill and its surroundings, the reservoir situated at the foot of the hill, and the archaeological remains scattered across the surrounding area.^[107]

Ellawala Medhananda Thero is recognized as an author who has provided several accounts regarding Kurundu Kanda Vihara, often noting its significance and the need for its restoration. Among his works, a prominent publication is Pacheena Passa-Uttara Passa: Nagenahira ha Uturu Palate Sinhala Bauddha Urumaya (2003), which includes a special note on Kurundi Vihara located in Mullaitivu.^[108]

In this work, Medhananda Thero highlights the severe deterioration of Buddhist antiquities in the Northern and Eastern provinces compared to the south. He notes that had the relevant authorities paid timely attention and implemented proper measures, many archaeological and historic sites could have been preserved from destruction.^[109]

Medhananda Thero first visited the site, likely in 1964, and described its then difficult terrain and features.

The site is located in a completely enclosed area. The Nellar (or Manal Aru) has been dammed to form Tannimuruppu Tank, situated to the south of Kurundammale. To the north lies Kurundankulam Tank. Both tanks are evidently ancient, as seen from the associated ruins. A stream is believed to connect the two tanks, as noted by a Tamil informant who guided us. The hill is sometimes referred to as Piyankallu, the Tamil form of Piyangala. The hilltop covers over 100 acres. Its summit is oval-shaped, and there are paths from both north and south sides, remnants of which were visible in 1964.

(Ellawala Medhananda (2003). Pacheena Passa-Uttara Passa: Nagenahira ha Uturu Palate Sinhala Bauddha Urumaya (in Sinhala). p. 413. ISBN 978-955-686-112-9.)^[110]

While Medhananda Thero provides information on the ancient architectural features of Kurundi Vihara, he does not attempt to reconstruct the monastic layout or speculate on the monastery's tradition. He interprets the circular structure on the hilltop as a Bodhighara, based on visual evidence, which aligns with the likely layout of the monastery.

He also provides his observations regarding an inscription discovered at Kurundankulam Tank:

An inscription at Kurundankulam reportedly mentions the third King Mihindu (801–804), who visited the site to resolve a water-related issue. The area is referred to as 'Kurungama' in the text. According to C. W. Nicholas, the water problem was caused by the Tannimuruppu Tank. Despite considerable effort, we could not locate the inscription.

(Ellawala Medhananda (2003). Pacheena Passa-Uttara Passa: Nagenahira ha Uturu Palate Sinhala Bauddha Urumaya (in Sinhala). p. 414. ISBN 978-955-686-112-9.)^[111]

The inscription could not be located despite search efforts; however, a related sculpture from the monastery near the lower embankment of the tank was found in 2020. Medhananda Thero also compiles various historical references from literary sources regarding the region:

The village called 'Kurundaka' is mentioned several times in the Attha-kathas. The Kadim potvul refers to a region known as Kurundugamura. The area is close to Kurundu-rata according to ritual texts and Nikaya compilations. Kurundugamura, Kurundu-rata, and Kurundaka likely refer to the same region. Padira refers to the area now called Padaviya. King Parakumba II (1236–1270) destroyed the Kalinga-Maag fort in Kurundi. Around the same period, Chandrabhanu established a fort here, where Sinhalese were taken into captivity. According to Ivers, Kurundi may have included present-day Kadekorala and Thadawan Korala. King Aggabahu I (571–604) constructed a monastery at Kurundi. King Vijayabahu I (1055–1110) renovated Kurundi Vihara and built a tank called Kurundi Wapi and a coconut plantation. King Khallatha Naga (100–103) built Kurundawashoka Vihara. These references appear in the Mahavamsa chronicles and are older than some Attha-katha narratives. The name Kurundi derives from the inscription at Kurundikawelu Vihara. The monastery constructed by King Khallata Naga is recorded as Kurundapasaka and Kurundawashoka in chronicles.

(Ellawala Medhananda (2003). Pacheena Passa-Uttara Passa: Nagenahira ha Uturu Palate Sinhala Bauddha Urumaya (in Sinhala). pp. 414–415. ISBN 978-955-686-112-9.)^[112]

Medhananda Thero further notes the historical continuity of the Buddhist settlement in the region:

Kurundawashoka appears to be an abbreviated form of Kurundawapi Ashoka. The Ashoka Vihara near Kurundawapi was referred to by that name. In all these cases, the 'Kurundi' element is preserved. The area has been inhabited since the period of King Mihindu, as documented in the Attha-katha texts. The name remains unchanged to this day. In ancient Sinhala script, one inscription was written here, indicating development of the region in the pre-Christian era and the presence of Sinhala Buddhists.

(Ellawala Medhananda (2003). Pacheena Passa-Uttara Passa: Nagenahira ha Uturu Palate Sinhala Bauddha Urumaya (in Sinhala). p. 415. ISBN 978-955-686-112-9.)^[113]

In 2016, Medhananda Thero again compiled information on Kurundi Vihara and Tannimuruppu Tank. He notes that prior to militant activities at the foot of the hill, a building existed for the monks to reside in. Archaeological surveys in 2023 corroborated that monks were active at this location around 1978, as reported by local residents who also provided offerings to the monks.He further describes a stone pillar approximately 12.6 feet long located on the upper terrace of the hilltop, possibly dating to the 4th century CE, with an inscription fragment reading Rakibala. However, the pillar has yet to be recovered.^[114]

Regarding a stone slab belonging to the monastery, he writes:

A section of the building’s stone pathway was overturned by some intruder, likely to search for buried treasure. Two pieces were removed from the outer perimeter, one of which remains attached to a moon-shaped lamp. Two corner stones were damaged. The half-lotus and flame motifs on the moon lamp indicate that it dates to the period during which it was originally crafted. Nearby lies a carved stone slab, purpose unknown.

(Ellawala Medhananda Thero (2016). Gaveshana Thula Gaveshana (in Sinhala). pp. 63–64.)^[115]

These observations indicate that vandalism by thieves near the monastery's stone pathway persisted until at least 2016. Based on other sources and the timeline, it is likely that these acts occurred after the end of the local militant conflict in 2009 and before 2016. The artistic features observed on the moon-shaped lamp suggest that the piece belongs to the mid-second phase of the Anuradhapura period. The architectural characteristics of the stone pathway and remaining archaeological evidence align with this period. Medhananda Thero identifies a carved stone slab as part of the monastic complex that once housed a Buddha statue above a repository (Ratnanayasa), as confirmed by current archaeologists.

Richard Leslie Brohier, an engineer who made significant contributions to reviving Sri Lanka’s agricultural industry through the development of tanks and irrigation systems, mentioned archaeological sites in his seminal work Ancient Irrigation Works of Ceylon, which documented the country’s tank systems.During a discussion of the large and important northern tank, the ‘Thannimuruppu Tank’, Brohier also expressed interest in the Kurundi Buddhist archaeological area. His enthusiasm to include information about this vihara in a paper primarily focused on irrigation, or non-archaeological topics, demonstrates the historical significance of this site.^[116]

Between these two tanks (Thannimuruppu Tank and Kurundi Tank) lies Kurunthanmalai or Piyangala Kanda, traditionally considered the second most visited location in Sri Lanka. It is a large, leveled area formed from earth. Along the Kurunthan Kulam tank embankment there is a row of stones extending to the hilltop. The hill gradually narrows, forming a ridge-like shape. Sometimes, it is possible to walk around the top of the stone row. Stone pillars cut into square shapes, about 7 to 8 feet tall, were present.

The ruins on the hilltop, along with other nearby features, help verify historical accounts and define the area’s boundaries. (These breaks are not natural but were caused intentionally over time.) If the accounts are correct, the Kurunthan Kulam indicates a period at least until the mid-3rd century CE, as the Sangha would have needed water from tanks to sustain life.

It is uncertain whether Thannimuruppu Tank existed at that time or was constructed later. Parker writes, ‘The stones used to join the sluices are relatively recent. However, as observed in northern Sri Lanka, many first sluices were rebuilt long after they were initially broken.

Moreover, the paper notes that although many Sinhala kings visited this site, they did not leave major markings, only a few minor traces showing their visits.

(R. L. Brohier. Ancient Irrigation Works of Ceylon. Vol. First, Second, and Third Parts. ISBN 955-9185-07-1.)

The report emphasizes that the damage observed at the archaeological site was not natural, but caused intentionally by people. It also mentions the popular belief that the Buddha visited the area a second time, and provides details regarding the distribution of ruins. Henry Parker’s notes on the Kurundi inscriptions also give a brief account of the settlement below the Kurundi tank embankment.^[117]

The first Sanghabodhi king (246-248 CE) constructed a vihara at the base of the embankment. Many years later, the fifth Dappula king reinstalled the Sangha in a vihara during his first year as king, around 965 CE. During the eighth year of King Mihindu’s reign, he visited the tank with his queen and daughter, and included a large stone pillar in the vihara reconstructed by Sanghabodhi king, forming a very long Dikgal inscription made from local stone.

Parker further notes, ‘Due to age-related damage, much of the inscription is illegible. The main part of the inscription includes rules that the resident Sangha must follow. However, minor general details are also included. There is mention of the ‘Rajjuruwo Maha Wewa’, which seems similar to Thannimuruppu Tank. It also describes certain agricultural disputes. The inscription specifies that no one shall cut or alter it, and authority is maintained to protect the stone pillar.’

The settlement below the Kurunthan Kulam embankment, identified through small streams and stone foundations, was known as Kurum village, as mentioned in the ancient stone inscription.

(R. L. Brohier. Ancient Irrigation Works of Ceylon. Vol. First, Second, and Third Parts. ISBN 955-9185-07-1.)

Additionally, Brohier’s report clarifies that the destruction caused by South Indian invasions, and subsequent depopulation during the 13th-14th centuries, left the northern regions, including Mullaitivu and Vavuniya, uninhabited for several decades, and that the current Tamil population in these areas is not the original inhabitants.

The place is known as Karunthanuru in Tamil. Over time, settlers from southern India occupied the site, rebuilt temples and structures using stone, and constructed a kovil. However, no historical records or traditional narratives indicate the period of the embankment’s destruction or abandonment. Observations show that the area was uninhabited from the 13th or 14th century onward.
(R. L. Brohier. Ancient Irrigation Works of Ceylon. Vol. First, Second, and Third Parts. ISBN 955-9185-07-1.)^[118]

According to Brohier, his careful scholarship allows him to summarize this ancient archaeological site, including the origin of the vihara, the involvement of various kings and officials over time, its existence, and its destruction.^[119]

Cyril W. Nicholas, a leading historian and archaeologist in Sri Lanka, provided detailed information about Kurundi Vihara in his work Ancient and Medieval Historical Sites of Sri Lanka.^[120] Drawing from various literary, epigraphical, and archaeological sources, his observations are summarized as follows:

Khallatanaga (c. 110-103 BCE) established Kurundawasoka Vihara. A group known as Kurundaka Chullaka was present. The Kurundi Atthakatha was compiled at Kurundi Vihara. The village of Kurundaka is mentioned in the Atthakathas. It is said that the I Agbohdi (570-604 CE) constructed the Kurundi Vihara. (In Sinhala chronicles, it is referred to as Kurundu Wewa.) He is said to have planted about 3 surrounding gardens (25–30 palms in area). A minister of IV Agbohdi (667-683 CE) constructed a Pasada at Kurundapilla Vihara.^{[note 6][121]}

I Vijayabahu (1055-1110 CE) renovated Kurundi Vihara. These various names may refer to the same vihara. It is located at present-day Kurunthan Oor in the southern Karikattamula division of Vavuniya District. The old name survives among the ruins. During the reign of Parakramabahu II (1236–1271 CE), the site was under Tamil control. Later, it was captured by a commander named Chandrabhanu. Near Kurundi, I Agbohdi constructed Ambilapassawa Vihara.

(Lewis, J.P., translated by Somapala Jayawardena. Ancient and Medieval Historical Sites of Sri Lanka (1979). Vol. New Volume, Section XXI.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link))^[122]

Like Brohier, C.W. Nicholas provides a concise but reliable account of the historical sequence of this site. By compiling information from historical sources, his reports also clarify the effects of other religious figures and invaders on the site.^[123]

Walpol Rahula, in his 1956 publication History of Buddhism in Ceylon, submitted as part of his doctoral dissertation to the University of Ceylon, clearly marks the present-day location of Kurundi Vihara on the map of “Ancient Lanka” as ‘Kurundi’.^[124] This demonstrates that he recognized this region as the territory of Kurundi. His work, based on critical scholarship on ancient Sri Lankan literature, helps to establish the regional identity of Kurundi corresponding to the present-day location of Kurundi Vihara. Earlier, in 1956, the University of Ceylon’s history publication History of Lanka (pp.158–159) also marked the region in the map “Lanka in the Distant Anuradhapura Period” as Kurundi.^[125] These observations confirm the regional identity of Kurundi independently of later scholarship.

C.S. Navaratnam, in his work Vanni & Vanniyas, notes that "There are ruins of Hindu Temples at Irasentirankulam, at Chinnapuvaraskulam and Kurunturkulam". However, he does not provide precise or verifiable location details.^[126]

Gunapala Malalasekara, a prominent scholar of Sri Lanka, in his work Pali Literature in Sri Lanka (prepared for his doctoral dissertation) briefly mentions Kurundi Atthakatha, compiled at Kurundi Vihara, as an important Pali text in multiple instances.^[127]

Kudawella Dheerananda Kalyanivansa, compiling a number of historical maps of Sri Lanka, in his 1967 publication shows several maps marking ‘Kurundi’ at the location of the present-day ancient Buddhist Vihara near Mullaitivu. Maps such as “Anuradhapura Early Period: Public Spread & Village Names”, “Anuradhapura Middle Period: Towns and Villages”, and “Polonnaruwa Period: Towns and Villages” indicate that Kurundi was a central area of religious importance from the Anuradhapura Early Period to the Polonnaruwa era.^[128]

H.A.P. Abhayagoonawardhana, in his 1978 work Kadaimpoth Vimarsanaya, in Chapter 4 “Descriptions of Local Boundaries”, under the subheading ‘Kurundagamu Rata’, correlates the location of present-day Kurundi Vihara with historical references. He also summarizes the accounts of Kurundi from previous publications.^[129]

The name Kurundugamura in Sri Lankan land registers may correspond to Kurundirattaya mentioned in chronicles. Both Padhi and Kurundu, as cited in chronicles, Pujavaliya, and Nikaya Sangrahaya, can be associated with Kurundugamura. Khallatanaga (c.110–103 BCE) is said to have constructed Kurundawasoka Vihara. The Kurundi Atthakatha was written at Kurundi Vihara. A Magha fort existed in Kurundi but was destroyed by Parakramabahu II. Later, the Chandra Banu invader brought Kurundu under Sinhala control. The Kurundu region mentioned north of Anuradhapura corresponds to Kadhae and Kadavat Korala, but Nicholas clarifies that the modern southern part of Karikattumula, Vavuniya, aligns with the ancient Kurundirattaya name, preserved in modern Kurunthanvuur.

(H.A.P. Abhayagoonawardhana. Kadaimpoth Vimarsanaya (1978). Vol. p.105.)

Ranawira Gunawardhana, based on references in the Mahavamsa, reports that the Kurundi Vihara constructed by I Agbohdi (571–604 CE) was used for worship by the entire Sangha. This indicates that the Kurundi Vihara was an independent vihara, not affiliated with any particular Nikaya.^[130]

The Kurundi Vihara constructed by I Agbohdi (571–604 CE) for the entire Sangha (Sabbasanghikam) may be understood as an independent monastery. The term Sabbasanghika emphasizes that, unlike many other monasteries receiving donations, this vihara was free from any Nikaya affiliation.

(Ranawira Gunawardhana. Sivura saha Nagula: A Study of Monastic Life and Economy in Early Medieval Sri Lanka (1993). Vol. p.51.)

Focusing special attention on the Buddhist heritage located in the North Eastern Province of Sri Lanka, former Archaeological Commissioner M.H. Sirisoma provided an account of Kurundi Male Vihara in his work *Heritage of the North Eastern Province*. According to his assessment, the site named Kurundan Malai, located within Vavuniya District (currently part of Mullaitivu District), contains the remains of a very ancient and religiously significant Buddhist temple. He summarized the site as follows, based also on information provided by H.C.P. Bell.^[131]

At this site, on a rocky outcrop, remnants of ancient stupas, ponds, monastic halls, and other architectural elements can be observed. It can be identified as the Kurundapashana Vihara constructed by King Kallatanaga during the 2nd century BCE. The Sinhalese text known as 'Kurundi Atthakatha' was compiled at this site. The ruins of Kurundi Vihara are spread over an area of approximately one hundred acres.

(M.H. Sirisoma. Heritage of the North Eastern Province. Vol. pp.42, 43.)^[132]

While it was an occasion to be considered a milestone in the preservation of Sri Lanka’s cultural heritage, and also valued as a national duty, the then esteemed government Minister of Industry and Science, Kaluwadewaige Cyril Mathews, in a petition submitted to UNESCO, highlighted this significant archaeological site in the Northern Province.^[133] The petition included a map prepared by then Assistant Archaeological Commissioner M.H. Sirisoma, marking the archaeological site as 37 Kurundan Kulam and 38 Kurundan Ur. Under the heading Kurundan Malai, the petition summarized the site as follows: the ruins of Kurundi Vihara cover 78 acres, 2 roods, and 13 perches of land (according to land measurements at the time), and were declared as an archaeological protected area by Gazette No. 7981 issued on May 12, 1933.^[134]

In August 1981, during a period of nationalist unrest, some individuals entered the archaeological protected area without permission, and in an attempt to convert the site into a modern Hindu temple, constructed a roof over the remaining stones of an old stone structure. Concrete was added inside the stone structure, and a trishula was installed. Coconut and other materials were used, and the trishula placed in front was mounted on a stone slab bearing the Sri Pada emblem. Concrete was placed on the top levels of a stupa structure adjacent to the trishula. It appears that there was an attempt to build a Hindu temple on a site that previously had an ancient Buddhist monastery.

(Kaluwadewaige Cyril Mathew. Petition Submitted to UNESCO to Preserve Sri Lanka’s Cultural Heritage Threatened by Nationalist Malpractices (1983). Vol. pp.17, 18.)^[135]

This report, led by Minister Cyril Mathews, helped prevent further distortion of the identity of this ancient site, and continues to serve as a supportive record for both religious and social development activities carried out in the area in recent times.The reconstruction of Kurundi Vihara in later years and the actions taken during that period are documented in detail by scholar Piyasena S. Jayawira, who served as the respected secretary of the State Institutions’ Buddhist Committee Conference under Minister Mathews’ chairmanship, in his work *Living Symbols of Sri Lanka’s Buddhist Heritage (Journey to a Vihara)*.^[136]

On 16 May 2018, under the initiative of Venerable Galgamuwe Santabodhi Thero, the initial groundwork necessary for the conservation of the Kurundi Archaeological Site commenced. On the following day, 17 May 2018, he formally informed the Director General of Archaeology regarding the conservation of Kurundi Vihara. Subsequently, on 9 August 2018, the Director General of Archaeology sent a letter to the Assistant Archaeological Commissioner of Vavuniya, instructing the commencement of necessary conservation works at the Kurundi Archaeological Site, with the support of Most Venerable Santabodhi of Galgamuwa. The primary financial support for these conservation efforts was provided by the Bauddhaloka Foundation.^[137]

From 4 September 2018, the ongoing conservation program faced repeated obstruction from the local Hindu community and extremist Tamil political factions. Several related disputes were heard in court, and after a few months, the Mulativu Court granted permission to resume conservation at the archaeological site.^[138]

However, due to various delays, conservation activities were postponed until 2020. In September of that year, extremist Tamil groups filed complaints again regarding the ongoing conservation works. After considering the points submitted by the archaeological officials, the Mulativu Court ruled the complaints invalid, allowing conservation works to proceed according to legal procedures. Subsequently, boundary demarcation and other preparatory work were completed, and the initial excavations at the Kurundi Archaeological Site commenced on 18 January 2021.^[139]

During the excavations, the emergence of a yupa stone from the stupa was mistakenly interpreted by some Tamil groups as an "Ashta Tara Shiva Lingam" and was disseminated through social media and Tamil news outlets. After the excavation phase ended, conservation of the Kurundi Stupa began, and in March 2022, work commenced on the reconstruction of the relic chamber. The Dhatu Nidanotsava (Relic Enshrinement Ceremony) at the Kurundi Stupa was scheduled for 12 June 2022. On that day, approximately 40 extremist Tamil individuals forcibly entered the venue, causing damage. Later in the evening, a group of Tamils from Jaffna arrived by bus and staged a protest near the conserved stupa. Security forces attempted to remove them, and they only left after the Buddhist ceremonial items were removed around 6:30 PM. Nevertheless, some extremist Tamil politicians and groups continued to claim that the Kurundi Vihara was an ancient Shiva temple, using land disputes as justification to obstruct conservation works repeatedly.^[140]

On 14 July 2022, the Mulativu District Judge issued a special order concerning the Kurundi Archaeological Site, instructing the Sri Lanka Police to remove the stupa being conserved without any inquiry from the Department of Archaeology. The news rapidly spread on social and electronic media, alarming the Sinhala Buddhist community, especially during the 2022 protests, prompting discussions on the site's protection and potential political implications. The Sri Lanka Police informed the Attorney General, who instructed the Mulativu Court to reconvene the case on 19 July 2022. Following an on-site inspection by the Judge, he issued an order to suspend the previous directive, allowing the conservation of the Kurundi Stupa to continue.^[141]

Subsequent conflicts led to temporary suspension of conservation work, with permission to resume granted in November 2022. Under the guidance of Northern Province Chief Sangha Nayaka, Most Venerable Santabodhi of Galgamuwa, excavation and conservation activities initiated in May 2018 were carried out without interruption, with support from the Department of Archaeology, University of Sri Jayawardenepura, security forces, and financial backing from the Bauddhaloka Foundation. On 17 March 2023, conservation work at the Kurundi Stupa was officially completed.^[142]

However, months later, due to multiple lawsuits related to Kurundi Vihara and other controversial incidents, Mulativu District Judge T. Saravanaraja resigned in September 2023, citing pressure from various parties.^[143][144]

Furthermore, issues concerning boundary demarcation and unauthorized land encroachment around the archaeological site were discussed in June 2023 at the Office of the President of Sri Lanka, involving then Interim President Ranil Wickremesinghe, Tamil politicians, and archaeological officials. Ranil Wickremesinghe, acting as Interim President, instructed that 279 acres and 79 perches within the new archaeological boundaries be returned to the local community. Archaeological Director General Anura Manatunga pointed out that under the Archaeological Ordinance, these lands could not be released due to their archaeological significance. During the meeting, Ranil Wickremesinghe reportedly said to the Director General, "Are you trying to teach me history, or should I teach you?" Moreover, when the Department officials explained the necessity of protecting the 279-acre archaeological reserve, he questioned, "Why 279 acres? Is it bigger than the Mahavihara? Even Mahavihara, Jetavanarama, and Abhayagiriya together do not occupy 100 acres," leading to disagreements. Following this, Director General of Archaeology Professor Anura Manatunga resigned from his post.^[145]Earlier, in 2018, when excavations at Kurundi Vihara initially commenced, then Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe had sent a letter to the Director General of Archaeology, Professor P.B. Mandawala, instructing him to halt conservation activities at the site.^[146]

• List of Archaeological Protected Monuments in Sri Lanka
• Kadurugoda Viharaya
• Nagadeepa Purana Vihara

• Report on Kurundi Raja Maha Viharaya

• Gnanānanda, Kiribathgoda (2020). Mahāvaṃsa, Part One (in Sinhala). Mahā Megha Prakashakayo. ISBN 978-955-687-185-2.
• Gnanānanda, Kiribathgoda (2020). Mahāvaṃsa, Part Two (in Sinhala). Mahā Megha Prakashakayo. ISBN 978-955-687-182-1.
• Veerawardhana, Chandima Bandara Ambanwela (2023). Kurundi Vihara Wansaya (in Sinhala). Sarasavi Prakashakayo. ISBN 978-955-31-2854-6.

• Kurundi Vihara Wansaya
• Ancient Sites and Monuments, Mullaitivu District^[147]