Viet people

"Viet" redirects here. For other uses, see Viet (disambiguation) and Viets (disambiguation).
"Người Việt" redirects here. For the California newspaper, see Nguoi Viet Daily News.

Viet people / Kinh people
người Việt / người Kinh
Viet women wearing áo nhật bình along with khăn vành dây.
Total population
c. 90 million (2025)
Regions with significant populations
Vietnam82,085,826 (2019)[1]
     Overseas communitiesMajority of the Vietnamese diaspora
Languages
Vietnamese, Vietnamese sign languages
Religion
Mainly folk religion syncretized with Buddhism; irreligious; Christian minority; others[2]
Related ethnic groups
Other Vietic ethnic groups
(Gin, Muong, Chứt, Thổ peoples)

The Viet people (Vietnamese: người Việt),[3] also known in Vietnam as the Kinh people (Vietnamese: người Kinh, to distinguish from other ethnicities) are a Southeast Asian ethnicity native to northern Vietnam, who expanded southwards in the 2nd millennium CE. They speak Vietnamese, an Austroasiatic language, and are one of the four main Vietic-speaking groups in Vietnam, the others being the Mường, Thổ, and Chứt.

The Viet accounted for 85.32% of Vietnam's population in the 2019 census and are officially designated as the Kinh people to distinguish them from minority groups in the country, such as the Mường, Tày, Hmong, and Cham. Diasporic descendants of the Kinh in Guangxi, China, known as the Gin people, are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by China. The Viet constitute the majority of the Vietnamese diaspora worldwide.

Terminology

According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as Việt (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), Kinh (related to medieval administrative designation), or Keeu and Kæw (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, Old Chinese *kraw) by Kra–Dai speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the Viet first-person pronoun ta (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "nước ta" (our country) and "tiếng ta" (our language) in contrast to "nước tây" (western countries) and "tiếng tây" (western languages).[4]

Việt

The term "Việt" (Chinese: 越; pinyin: Yuè; Cantonese Yale: Yuht; Vietnamese: Việt) in Early Middle Chinese was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[5] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[6][7] In the 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze were called the Yangyue, which was later used to describe peoples living further south.[6] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, Việt (Hanyu Pinyin: Yuè) referred to the State of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[5][6] From the 3rd century BC, the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue, Âu Việt (Ouyue), Lạc Việt (Luoyue), etc., collectively called the Baiyue (Bách Việt, Chinese: 百越; pinyin: Bǎiyuè; Cantonese Yale: Baak Yuet; Vietnamese: Bách Việt; lit. 'Hundred Yue/Viet'; ).[5][6] The term Bách Việt (Hanyu Pinyin: Bǎiyuè) first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu compiled around 239 BC.[8][9] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as người Việt (𠊛越; Viet people) or người Nam (𠊛南; southern people).[10]

Kinh

Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet–Muong (northern Vietic language), with influence from a hypothetical Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, evolved into what is later the Vietnamese language.[11][12][13] Its speakers called themselves the người Kinh ( chữ Nôm: 𠊛京; lit. 'Kinh people'), meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the Red River Delta with Hanoi as its capital. Chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京' (Hanyu Pinyin: Jīng; Vietnamese: Kinh). Other variants of Proto-Viet–Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called Trại (寨), or "outpost" people", by the 13th century. These became the Mường people.[14] According to Victor Lieberman, Kinh people may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents.[10]

History

Origins and prehistoric period

The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the Lạc, Lạc Việt, or the Dongsonian,[15] a tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot Austroasiatic and Kra–Dai speakers who occupied the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam.[16][17]

One hypothesis suggests that the forerunners of the ethnic Kinh descend from a subset of proto-Austroasiatic people in southern China, either around Yunnan, Lingnan, or the Yangtze River, and mainland Southeast Asia. These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into Monic speakers, who settled further to the west, and the Khmeric speakers, who migrated further south. The Munda of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who possibly diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Some archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.[18][19][20][21]

Some linguists, such as James Chamberlain and Joachim Schliesinger, have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated northwards from the North Central Region of Vietnam to the Red River Delta, which had originally been inhabited by Tai speakers.[22][23][24][25] Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in Jiaozhi (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a more stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the Han-Tang periods.[26]

Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in what later is Bolikhamsai Province and Khammouane Province in Laos and in parts of Nghệ An Province and Quảng Bình Province in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.[27]

Some scholars link the origin of the Vietic languages to northern Vietnam, around the Red River Delta.[28][29][30]

Michael Churchman, Tuong Vu, and Frederic Pain argue that a distinct Vietnamese identity or language did not exist in full prior to and during the Han-Tang period. Churchman states that during this period, the tribes in northern Vietnam and southern China did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.[31] Vu believes that a Han-Viet group existed that spoke a Chinese dialect called "Annamese Middle Chinese" and Proto-Viet–Muong, while the inhabitants of the Red River Valley did not have a single identity or language.[32] Pain also argues that Vietnamese cultural identity was the result of Chinese influence on native elements that fully emerged in the post-Chinese rule period during the Song dynasty.[33]

Ancient to early medieval period

The Đông Sơn culture was pioneered by the Lạc Việt peoples.[34] To the south of the Dongsonians/Lạc Việt was the Sa Huỳnh culture of the Austronesian Chamic people.[35] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc Việt interacted with the Âu Việt, a splinter group of Tai people from southern China,[36] and Sinitic peoples from further north.[37] According to a third- or fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, Thục Phán, the leader of the Âu Việt, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last Hùng king.[38] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of Âu Lạc kingdom, uniting the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes.[34] In 179 BC, Zhao Tuo, a Chinese general who established the Nanyue state in what later is southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, which initiated Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted for a millennium.[39] In 111 BC, the Han Empire conquered Nanyue, which also brought northern Vietnam under Han rule.[40]

By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the Tang Empire ruled over the region, historians such as Henri Maspero proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and Chứt due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.[41] In the 9th century, local rebels aided by Nanzhao almost ended Tang rule.[42] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, marking the separation between the Mường and the Vietnamese.[41][43]

According to Jennifer Holmgren, the first six centuries of Chinese rule saw more Vietnamization of local Chinese than Sinicization of local Vietnamese.[44] Compared to the first six centuries of Chinese rule when demographics were more stable, Chinese migration during the Tang period cause changes to certain portions of Vietnamese society in northern Vietnam. Most of these Chinese migrants came as soldiers or merchants, took a wife from the indigenous population, and settled down. They were individuals that settled down in a nuclear family, causing the average household size to decrease. While there was the increase of Chinese migrants to Vietnam, it was more constrained compared to Chinese migration to Guangdong and Guangxi due to the structure of Vietnamese society, which limited the ability of Chinese rulers to register and tax the local population. Some peoples like the Muong, Tay, and Nung people fled Chinese control into the uplands, where Chinese registers could not reach them. Non-Chinese foreign migration also occurred in the south due to pressures elsewhere such as the expanding Cham kingdom.[45]

In 938, the leader Ngô Quyền who was a native of Thanh Hóa, led forces to defeat the Chinese armada at Bạch Đằng River. He proclaimed himself king over a polity that could be perceived as "Vietnamese".[46]

Medieval and early modern period

Ngô Quyền died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.[47] In 968, a leader named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.[48] With assistance of Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose Hoa Lư in the southern edge of the Red River Delta as the capital instead of Tang-era Đại La, adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.[49] The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness".[50] In 979, Emperor Đinh Tiên Hoàng was assassinated, and Queen Dương Vân Nga married Dinh's general Lê Hoàn and appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Chinese Song dynasty and Champa Kingdom, and they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.[51] A Khmer inscription dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in Angkor.[52] Chinese writers Song Hao, Fan Chengda and Zhou Qufei all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing".[53] The 11th-century Cham inscription of Chiên Đàn, My Son, erected by king of Champa Harivarman IV (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.[54] Some Kinh Vietnamese also lived in Champa and were assimilated, like other Austroasiatic groups living in the state.[55]

Successive royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần and Hồ dynasties, who had Hoa/Chinese ancestry, ruled the kingdom from 968 to 1407.[56] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, with Cham, Indian and Chinese cultures influencing music instruments, dance and religious worship.[57] Confucianism also gradually gained attention and influence.[58] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the Vietnamese language were dated to the 12th century whilst surviving chữ Nôm script inscriptions were dated to the 13th century, showcasing influences of Chinese culture among the elites.[59]

The Mongol Yuan dynasty unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, while they sacked Hanoi.[60] The Ming dynasty of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought it under Ming rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by leader Lê Lợi.[61] The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (r. 1460–1497) had a reign recognized for administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars. He adopted Confucianism and transformed Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a more bureaucratic state. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with gunpowder weapons, overwhelmed the rival Champa in 1471 and launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and Lan Na kingdoms in the 1480s.[62]

After the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, extreme climate, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the kingdom apart.[63] From 1533 to 1790s, four families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled their own domains. In the northern polity of Đàng Ngoài (outer realm), the Lê emperors sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).[64] Thousands of ethnic Viet migrated south and settled on the old Cham lands, with Cham inhabitants assimilating into the new Viet state.[65][66] Viet also settled in the highlands of Vietnam and intermixed with the natives over centuries.[66] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, Alexandre de Rhodes published a 300-pages catechism in Latin and romanized-Vietnamese (chữ Quốc Ngữ) or the Vietnamese alphabet.[67]

Modern period

In 1802, Emperor Gia Long, aided by French mercenaries, defeated the Tay Son kingdoms. By 1847, the state under Emperor Thiệu Trị, a people that were identified as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80% of the country's population.[68] Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the French colony of Cochinchina.[69] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887.[70][71] The French administration imposed political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[72] A Western-style system of education introduced new humanist values into Vietnam.[73]

Genetics

Some studies show closer genetic affinities between the Kinh Vietnamese and Thais[74][75][76][77][78] or Kra–Dai peoples,[79][80][81][82][78][83] especially Dai people.[84][85][86][87] Like Kra–Dai groups from mainland China, the Kinh possess "genetic characteristics of the Baiyue lineage." There's also evidence that the Kinh diverged from the Hlai, who have the most enriched Baiyue ancestry among Kra–Dai groups, earlier than the Dai diverged from Hlai.[88]

According to some studies, the Kinh can be modeled as having genetic input from a sister lineage related to the ancestors of Southern Chinese groups, and to a lesser extent from a sister lineage related to Laotians, Malays (i.e. Proto-Malay, Negrito, and Bidayut) and Thais (i.e. Mlabri and H'tin). Gene flow between Khmers and Kinh is unidirectional with more evidence of Kinh contributing to the Khmer genome than vice versa.[89][90][91] Likewise, there is no evidence of Chams contributing to the Kinh genome from the Nam Tiến conquests.[89] Among ancient populations, Kinh Vietnamese are the closest to Núi Nấp and Vat Komnou populations while the latter possibly reflects shared East Asian-related ancestry.[92][93] They are cladal with Iron Age and Historical Mainland Southeast Asian populations compared to other Austroasiatic-related populations.[83]

The majority of the Kinh belong to maternal haplogroups M (39%) and N (61%). In particular, M's subhaplogroup of Haplogroup D (22%) and M7 (20%) and N's subhaplogroups of R9'F (27%) and Haplogroup B (25%) are most common. In northern Vietnam, haplogroups, A, B4, F1a and G are most common.[94] Haplogroups A and C are particularly common in northwest Vietnam, with haplogroups M and M7 peaking in northeast Vietnam and settlements near the Gulf of Tonkin. Haplogroup M71 also peaks in central Vietnam. In contrast, haplogroups M and M7 are rarer for northwest Vietnam and far south Vietnam, near the Mekong Delta.[89][94] In southern Vietnam, haplogroups D (9%) and N peak (67%) and to an extent, R9'F (29%). R9'F is instead more common in the Red River Delta (32-36%), followed by central (21%) and northwest Vietnam (16%).[89]

Diaspora

Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Viet migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Viet migrants in China form the Gin ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around Guangxi Province.[95]

During French Indochina, Vietnam (then divided into three regions) was regarded as the most important colony in Asia, and the Viet held a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in the colony.[96] As a result, some Viet were trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies.[97] Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the Khmer Rouge era reduced the Vietnamese Cambodian population in Cambodia from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[98]

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ General Statistics Office of Vietnam (2019). Kết quả Toàn bộ Tổng điều tra dân số và nhà ở năm 2019 (Completed Results of the 2019 Viet Nam Population and Housing Census) (PDF). Statistical Publishing House (Vietnam). ISBN 978-604-75-1532-5. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021.
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  7. ^ Theobald, Ulrich (2018). "Shang Dynasty – Political History". ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, the Guifang 鬼方 and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, the Qiangfang 羌方, Suifang 繐方, Yuefang 戉方, Xuanfang 亘方 and Zhoufang 周方 in the west, as well as the Yifang 夷方 and Renfang 人方 in the southeast.
  8. ^ The Annals of Lü Buwei. Translated by Knoblock, John; Riegel, Jeffrey. Stanford University Press. 2000. p. 510. ISBN 978-0-8047-3354-0. For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes.
  9. ^ Lüshi Chunqiu "Examination on Relying on Rulers" "Relying on Rulers" text: "揚、漢之南，百越之際，敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地，縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國，多無君" translation: South of the Yang and Han rivers, among the Hundred Yuè, the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers"
  10. ^ a b Lieberman 2003, p. 405.
  11. ^ Phan, John (2010). "Re-Imagining "Annam": A New Analysis of Sino–Viet–Muong Linguistic Contact" (PDF). Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
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  15. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 41–42.
  16. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 42.
  17. ^ Kelley, Liam C.; Hong, Hai Dinh (2021), "Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang", in Gillen, Jamie; Kelley, Liam C.; Le, Ha Pahn (eds.), Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community, Springer Singapore, pp. 88–107, ISBN 978-9-81165-055-0
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  20. ^ Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
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  22. ^ Chamberlain 2000, p. 40.
  23. ^ Schliesinger (2018a), pp. 21, 97.
  24. ^ Schliesinger (2018b), pp. 3–4, 22, 50, 54.
  25. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 46–47.
  26. ^ Churchman (2010), p. 36.
  27. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 52.
  28. ^ Sagart, Laurent (2008). "The expansion of setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model". In Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (eds.). Past Human Migrations in East Asia. pp. 133–157. doi:10.4324/9780203926789. ISBN 978-1-134-14963-6. HAL hal-04864187. The cradle of the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic is very likely in north Vietnam, at least 1000km to the south‑west of coastal Fújiàn
  29. ^ Ferlus, Michael (2009). "A Layer of Dongsonian Vocabulary in Vietnamese". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 1: 95–108. HAL halshs-00932218v3.
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  31. ^ Churchman (2010), pp. 27–29, 31, 32, 33.
  32. ^ Vu 2016, pp. 43–46.
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  34. ^ a b Kiernan 2019, p. 53.
  35. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 56.
  36. ^ Chapuis, Oscar (1 January 1995). A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-313-29622-2.
  37. ^ Schafer 1967, p. 14.
  38. ^ Kelley 2016, pp. 167–168.
  39. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 69.
  40. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 75.
  41. ^ a b Maspero 1912, p. 10.
  42. ^ Schafer 1967, p. 63.
  43. ^ Taylor 1983, p. 248.
  44. ^ Kiernan (2019), p. 100.
  45. ^ Taylor 1983, pp. 140–143.
  46. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary].
  47. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 139.
  48. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 141.
  49. ^ Lieberman 2003, p. 352.
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  56. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 148.
  57. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 153–154.
  58. ^ Kiernan 2019, p. 155.
  59. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 135, 138.
  60. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 169, 170.
  61. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 194–197.
  62. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 204–211.
  63. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 213–214.
  64. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 221–223.
  65. ^ Kiernan 2019, pp. 224–225.
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  69. ^ McLeod 1991, p. 61.
  70. ^ Ooi 2004, p. 520.
  71. ^ Cook 2001, p. 396.
  72. ^ Frankum 2011, p. 172.
  73. ^ Nhu Nguyen 2016, p. 37.
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Journal articles and theses

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