Khosrov I

Khosrov I (Parthian: 𐭇𐭅𐭎𐭓𐭅; fl. second half 2nd c. - first half 3rd c., died 217) was a Parthian prince who served as a Roman client king of Armenia.Khosrov I was one of the sons born to King Vologases II of Armenia (Vagharsh II)^[1] who is also known as Vologases V of Parthia^[2] by a mother whose name is unknown. Through his father, Khosrov I was a member of the House of Parthia and thus a relation of the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia.^[3]In 191, Vologases II ascended the Parthian throne, and as a result relinquished the Armenian throne to Khosrov I.^[4][5] Throughout the 1st and 2nd-centuries, the Armenian throne was usually occupied by a close relative of the Parthian King of Kings, who held the title of "Great King of Armenia".^[6] According to the 5th-century Armenian historian Agathangelos, the king of Armenia had the second rank in the Parthian realm, below only the Parthian king.^[7] The modern historian Lee E. Patterson suggests that Agathangelos may have exaggerated the importance of his homeland.^[8] Khosrov I served as Armenian King from 191 until 217. In Armenian sources, Khosrov I is often confused with his famous grandson Khosrov II.^[9] Little is known on his life, prior to becoming King of Armenia.Khosrov I is the King whom classical authors present as a neutral monarch towards Rome.^[10] In 195 when the Roman emperor Septimius Severus was on his great campaign to the Parthian Empire sacking the capital Ctesiphon, Khosrov I had sent gifts and hostages to Severus.^[11] As a client monarch of Rome, Khosrov I was under the protection of Septimius Severus and his successor Caracalla.^[12]Between 214 and 216, Khosrov I with his family were held under Roman detention for unknown reasons which provoked a major uprising in Armenia against Rome.^[13] In 215, Caracalla led a Roman army and invaded Armenia^[14] to end the uprising. Khosrov I may be the Khosrov mentioned in an Egyptian inscription that speaks of Khosrov the Armenian.^[15]In 217 when Khosrov I died, his son Tiridates II,^[16] was granted the Armenian crown^[17] by the Roman emperor Caracalla.^[18] Tiridates II was declared King of Armenia upon Caracalla's assassination^[19] which was on 8 April 217.

After the death of Vagharsh II, his son Khosrov I the Brave (206–253) was proclaimed king of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia. He was a man of great intellect, exceptional organizational talent, as well as notable military and diplomatic abilities. At the beginning of his reign, he crossed the Caucasus Mountains, and as a result, in the spring of 207, the army of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia (approximately 110,000 troops), led by Khosrov I the Brave, sparapet Ashot Bagratuni, and Babken Artsruni, passed through the Derbent Pass on a punitive campaign and defeated the combined forces of the Basilian and Alanian kingdoms (around 60,000 troops, including Sarmatians, Khazars, and Bulgars) in the Battle of Derbent Fortress^{[20][21][22][23][24][25]}. As a result, the war initiated earlier by his father, Vagharsh II, came to an end.Consequently, the kingdoms of Alania, Basileia, and Caucasian Albania recognized the supremacy of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia, while hostages were taken from the Sarmatians, Khazars, Basilians, and Bulgars as guarantees of the concluded peace. The borders of Armenian dominance extended northward to the southern valley of the Volga River and the Ciscaucasian steppes, and eastward to the Caspian Sea and Atropatene. Thus, succeeding his father and inflicting a crushing defeat upon the combined Basilian and Alanian forces, Khosrov I the Brave—who already held the Kingdom of Iberia under his authority through his brother Rev—also imposed allied obligations upon the Basilian and Alanian kingdoms, effectively creating a powerful confederation of northern states under the supremacy of Greater Armenia. While protecting the interests of the priestly class, he persecuted Christian communities.In 202, together with his ally, the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus, he was present in Egypt during the latter’s campaign.Following the Sasanian coup against the Parthian Arsacids in 208–209, and in 213, Khosrov I allied himself with and supported Artabanus V, who had been proclaimed King of Kings in Parthia in opposition to Vagharsh VI.In the autumn of 216, Khosrov I the Brave, together with his wife, arrived at a Roman imperial camp located in Corduene, where, however, the Armenian king and queen were captured^[26][27]. Upon learning of this, the army of Greater Armenia (about 100,000 troops), led by Prince Trdat, set out on a campaign and advanced toward the enemy. In response, the Roman army under Theocritus also moved to meet the Armenian forces. The armies approached each other and formed battle lines. The Armenian army inflicted a heavy defeat on the Roman forces, which retreated toward Edessa.

Meanwhile, the Roman army (approximately 140,000 troops), led by Septimius Caracalla, marched along the route Edessa–Carrhae–Nisibis–Arbela and prepared to invade the territory of the Parthian kingdom. Upon learning this, the combined forces of the Parthian kingdom (around 80,000 troops), led by Artabanus V, and the Kingdom of Greater Armenia (around 100,000 troops), led by Prince Trdat, advanced toward the enemy, which retreated as far as Nisibis and encamped nearby. However, on April 8, Caracalla was assassinated by his own guards. Thereafter, in the immediate vicinity of the opposing army, his secretary and the true organizer of the conspiracy, Marcus Macrinus (217–218), was proclaimed emperor.

Under these circumstances, on April 9, the opposing sides approached each other and formed battle lines. On that day, the combined Parthian and Armenian forces launched an attack, but the fierce battle, which lasted all day, brought no advantage to either side. On April 10, the engagements continued with no decisive outcome. On April 11, the allied Parthian and Armenian army, superior particularly in cavalry, launched another attack and attempted to outflank the Roman formation; in response, however, the Romans extended their lines and managed to hold their positions. As a result, the intense and bloody fighting that continued throughout the day again produced no decisive advantage, and by the end of the day, both sides—having suffered heavy losses—retreated to their initial positions.

In these difficult circumstances, Marcus Macrinus, fully understanding that his equally strained opponent was fighting stubbornly, likely driven by a desire for revenge against Caracalla, released Khosrov I the Brave and his wife on April 12. Through them, he informed the opposing command that Caracalla had been dead for four days and, taking this into account, proposed concluding peace. The proposal was accepted, and thus peace was concluded, bringing the Fifth Roman–Parthian War to an end. As a result, Khosrov I the Brave was restored to the throne of Greater Armenia^{[28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]}.

On April 27, 224, at the Battle of Hormozdgan, the army of the Persian kingdom led by Ardashir I (220–243), together with its allies, utterly defeated the forces of the Parthian kingdom led by Artabanus V. The leader of the Sasanian dynasty, who harbored deep and even hereditary hatred toward the Arsacids, was not satisfied merely with the death of Artabanus V, casting down his severed head, he trampled it with relentless fury. A new era was opening for the Near and Middle East^[36]. The age of the Arsacids was coming to an end, and the era of the Sasanians was beginning.

Guided by the intention to prevent the emerging threat, and perhaps also hoping to restore the power of his kinsmen in the Iranian Highlands, Khosrov I the Brave, king of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia, initiated a struggle against the Sasanians. Thus began a decisive war that would continue within the Arsacid world for nearly three decades and would have major consequences.The War for the Arsacids, also known as the Second Armenian–Persian War (224–253), commenced.After spending the year 225 consolidating his forces, in the spring of 226, the combined army led by Khosrov I the Brave—comprising the forces of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia and Armenian Mesopotamia (approximately 120,000 troops), along with the allied armies of Iberia, Alania, Basileia, and Caucasian Albania (around 50,000 troops, including Huns, Khazars, and Lezgins)—devastated Atropatene and Northern Mesopotamia. Following this, they advanced rapidly toward Ctesiphon. It was beneath the walls of this city, in the summer of the same year, that the allied forces inflicted a heavy defeat upon the army of the Persian kingdom led by Ardashir I (approximately 120,000 troops)^{[37][38][39][40][41][42]}. However, failing to capture the former Arsacid capital, they eventually retreated.The confederation led by the Armenian king struck again at Sasanian Atropatene and Mesopotamia in 227^{[37][43][44][45]}, 228^{[37][46][40][40][47][48]}, and 229^{[37][49][40][50][51]}. In all cases, however, despite their efforts, the united forces of Khosrov I the Brave were ultimately compelled to withdraw. Although these attacks placed considerable strain on the Sasanians and on Ardashir I, decisive success still eluded the forces acting in favor of the Arsacids. Moreover, in 228, they lost Vagharsh VI, who held some degree of authority in Mesopotamia; he was deposed and killed.In the spring of 230, attempting to preempt another annual strike by the Armenian king, the combined army of the Persian kingdom led by Ardashir I, the Kingdom of Adiabene under Sarhat (c. 198–240), and the Kingdom of Characene under Domitian (c. 220–240) (approximately 45,000 troops) launched a surprise attack toward Northern Mesopotamia. As a result, they captured the fortress of Bezabde (in Armenian Mesopotamia, in the district of Tsavdek, on the right bank of the Tigris) from the Roman imperial garrison (about 1,000 troops) and its Armenian contingent (around 500), and also seized Arzan from the army of Greater Armenia^[52][53]. However, the enemy failed to capture Nisibis, which was stubbornly defended by the imperial forces^[54].Thus, the Sasanian offensive in the western direction did not yield any substantial success. Consequently, in the same year (230), the Armenian king once again struck Atropatene and Mesopotamia^{[55][37][56][40][57]}, and in 231 not only repeated these attacks^{[58][37][59][60][61][62]} but also forced Ardashir I to retreat with the remnants of his army as far as the western borders of the Kushan Kingdom. In effect, the boundaries of Armenian dominance in the south extended to Central Mesopotamia and the northern frontier of Persia.

Alexander Severus, naturally, and under the influence of his close advisors, prepared to strike against the Persian kingdom. In doing so, the alliance with Khosrov I the Brave was not neglected. The anti-Sasanian forces, intending to eliminate Ardashir I, who had established himself in Persia, planned to deliver their blow along two main directions.The first direction, which Roman military theorists considered the principal one, envisaged an advance from Nisibis toward the southeast, carried out by the main forces of the Roman Empire, supported by auxiliary troops from the Kingdom of Greater Armenia. The second direction, in which the primary role belonged to the allied confederate army of the Armenian king—while Roman forces played a smaller, supporting role—involved an offensive from Armenia toward Tabriz, after which the two forces were to converge in northern Persia.At first glance, everything appeared well planned; however, the strategy ultimately failed. The primary reason for this failure seems to have been Alexander Severus’s hesitation, influenced by his mother’s advice, which was driven by a desire to shield her son from the dangers of the impending war.Thus, by early autumn, the forces led by Khosrov I the Brave advanced into Atropatene via the route Vaspurakan–Tabriz–Gandzak. However, it became evident on the ground that the Roman military machine advancing from the west toward Mesopotamia was delayed. As a result, under irregular attacks by the Persian army (approximately 30,000 troops), and facing the onset of winter conditions, Khosrov I’s forces suffered significant losses and were ultimately forced to withdraw northward^[63][64].At the same time, Alexander Severus’s own campaign did not fare any better. Indeed, the young emperor, attempting nevertheless to advance from Nisibis toward the southeast, managed—albeit at great cost—to defeat the main army of the Persian kingdom (approximately 70,000 troops, 700 elephants, and 1,800 war chariots) at the Battle of Hatra in November 232. However, another Persian force surrounded a Roman auxiliary column (around 30,000 troops) advancing southward along the Euphrates Valley and, despite suffering heavy losses, completely destroyed it. As a result of these developments, the main forces of Alexander Severus were ultimately compelled to retreat^{[65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72]}.Thus, the principal offensive of the anti-Sasanian coalition, in which even the powerful Roman Empire took part, ended in complete failure. Ardashir I not only managed to hold his positions but also continued to pose a threat to the surrounding regions.

As a result, Khosrov I the Brave—who had once again assumed the leading role in the struggle against the Sasanians—gathered his army and concentrated the forces of his confederation. In 233, advancing once more southward along the route Vaspurakan–Tabriz–Gandzak–Central Atropatene, he achieved a significant success by capturing Ecbatana^{[37][73][40][74][75]}.Subsequently, seeking to decisively crush the Sasanian ruler, the Armenian king delivered heavy blows against Persia and Southern Mesopotamia in 234^{[76][37][77][78][79]}, 235^{[80][37][81][82][83]}, 236^{[37][40][84][85]}, and 237^{[86][37][37][87][40][88][89]}, although he ultimately failed to eradicate the Sasanian power entirely.For their part, in 238, the combined army of the Persian kingdom led by Ardashir I, the Kingdom of Adiabene under Sarhat, and the Kingdom of Characene under Domitian (approximately 50,000 troops) captured Nisibis and Carrhae^[90] from the Roman imperial forces (around 1,000 troops in total) and their Armenian contingents (approximately 500).Following this, a pause in military operations ensued, as Khosrov I the Brave needed to reorganize and restore his forces. In April 243, Ardashir I—who had founded the new Sasanian state but had been unable to firmly consolidate its position, largely due to the persistent efforts of the Armenian king Khosrov I the Brave, and had not fully enjoyed the fruits of his achievements—passed away. He was succeeded by his eldest son and co-ruler, Shapur I (243–273).The entire burden of the struggle against Shapur I thus fell upon the shoulders of the now aging Armenian king, Khosrov I the Brave.

At the end of September 249, the combined army led by Khosrov I the Brave—comprising the forces of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia and Armenian Mesopotamia (approximately 120,000 troops), as well as the allied armies of Iberia, Alania, Basileia, and Caucasian Albania (around 50,000 troops, including Huns, Khazars, and Lezgins)—once again advanced into Mesopotamia and achieved victory over the Persian army (approximately 130,000 troops)^{[91][92][93][94]} led by Shapur I at the Battle of Ctesiphon.Thereafter, in 250, seeking to exploit this success, the Armenian king launched another offensive toward Atropatene and Ecbatana, this time intending to unite with the army of the Kushan Kingdom (around 80,000 troops), led by Vasudeva II (c. 220–c. 250), which was advancing from the east and appeared to have committed itself to supporting the Arsacid cause.However, events unfolded differently: the Persian army under Shapur I reached the forces of Vasudeva II first and, through a surprise attack, utterly defeated them; the Kushan king himself was killed in the battle. Under these circumstances, effectively deprived of his principal allied forces, the Armenian king withdrew with his own troops into his native mountainous regions^{[95][37][37][96][97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104]}. It is noteworthy that Shapur I, also avoiding direct confrontation, withdrew to Persia.The year 251 was by no means easy for Shapur I. It was already the eighth year of his independent reign, yet he had still failed to consolidate his authority, fully extend it across the Iranian Highlands, or free himself from his persistent adversary, Khosrov I the Brave. In effect, a situation had emerged in which it became clear that no decisive results could be achieved in the coming years through purely military means.Under these conditions, Shapur I resorted to the ancient and time-tested method of political assassination: it was decided to eliminate the Armenian king. The circumstances of the conspiracy against the Armenian monarch are relatively well known. Anak, a member of the Suren noble house, feigning rebellion against Shapur I, relocated with his family and clan to the territory of the Armenian kingdom in early 252. There, he was warmly received by Khosrov I the Brave, who was in great need of allied support in his struggle against the Sasanians.Subsequently, in April 253, seizing a favorable opportunity, Anak, together with his brother, found himself alone with the Armenian king and inflicted a mortal wound upon him with a sword strike. Thereafter, by the order of the still-living Khosrov I the Brave, both the fleeing Anak was killed and his entire clan and family were massacred, with the exception of his young son Gregory^{[105][37][37][106][107][108][109][40][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]}. However, this did not prolong the life of the Armenian king, who died shortly thereafter.Thus, the nearly three-decade-long struggle of the Kingdom of Greater Armenia against the Persian kingdom—seemingly approaching a successful phase—came to an abrupt end. Following the assassination of Khosrov I the Brave, Armenian supremacy effectively collapsed. The War for the Arsacids, or the Second Armenian–Persian War, also came to an end, and all the territories that had acknowledged Armenian overlordship broke away.The Kingdom of Greater Armenia retained only its fourteen provinces and the region of Sophene west of the Euphrates. Given the minority of Prince Trdat, Khosrov I’s brother, Khosrov II (253; 293–298 in part), was proclaimed regent-king. The country now faced serious challenges.

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