Khalifa Ben Asker's revolt
| Khalifa Ben Asker's revolt | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of World War I | |||||||||
Oum Souigh military post, 1915–1916 | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
|
Tunisian rebels Senussi Supported by: Ottoman Empire German Empire | |||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Octave Meynier General Moinier[1] General Boyer[2] Major Voglino Major Ghisoni (POW) Lutaud[1] |
Khalifa Ben Asker (POW) Amor Ben Asker Mahdi Es Sunni Si El Hashemi[1] Sliman El Barouni[1] Noury Bey[1] | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 15,000[2][3][4] to 30,000[5] | Unknown | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| ~2,296 casualties[a] | 800–1,000 killed | ||||||||
Khalifa Ben Asker's revolt was an anti-colonial uprising led by Khalifa Ben Asker against Italian and French control in Tunisia between 1915 and 1918, during World War I.
Revolt
The revolt emerged as Tunisian rebel Khalifa Ben Asker and his supporters challenged the declining authority of the Senussi in southern Tunisia and in Tripolitania.[1][4] And unrest worsened after the Italians began practicing public hangings and destruction of villages, which caused several French officers to distance themselves from the Italians. French policy, known as "neutralité bienveillante", involved disarming and imprisoning certain rebel groups in Tunisia, while allowing the Italians to operate freely, which angered the local population. One of the leaders of the insurgents, Khalifa's brother, Amor Ben Asker, was forced into exile in Tunisia with 200 unarmed men.[1]
In January 1915, the Italians advanced from Fort-Polignac toward Ghadames before being forced to seek refuge in Bir Pistor.[1]
By February, a second Italian column led by Major Voglino re-established itself in Ghadames, pushing General Octave Meynier, commander of the Oasis territory, to redirect his troops toward the Ajjer region. French forces supplied arms and ammunition to the Italians despite having instructions to limit military aid to Ghadames.[1]
In June, Ouazzane and Sinaoun are evacuated, and the collapse at Kabaw costs the Italians 250 men and leaves the insurgents with 600 rifles and significant supplies. In July, Nalut is abandoned, with several hundred Italians killed and the commander of the garrison, Major Ghisoni, taken prisoner with 130 men.[1]
On July 19, the Italians evacuate Ghadames for the second time, leaving Tunisia. At the end of the month, the significant garrison of Zuwarah (3,000 men) abandons the city to the insurgents. By the summer of 1915, the Italians only control Tripoli and its surroundings.[1]
Khalifa Ben Asker, unable to secure the return of his brother Amor and the detainees at Douz, nor the authorization for his troops to come and resupply at the border market of Ben Gardane, attacks the Tunisian border posts with the help of German and Ottoman officers. At the same time, the populations of Southern Tunisia begin to take up arms against the French.[1]
On September 15, 1915, after a clash near Dehiba, French troops cross the border and meet 600 Tripolitanians at Ouazzane. Several battles take place between Dehiba and Oum Souigh.[1]
On September 27, Dehibat is attacked and encircled.[1][5] Oum Souigh is attacked by 2,000 combatants[6] starting on October 2.[1] Oum Souigh is cleared on the 9th at the cost of about one hundred dead. The arrival of 1,600 men from the Flick column, mobile patrol groups, the reoccupation of all posts, and the lifting of the siege of Dehibat mark the failure of the Tripolitanian offensive.[1]
Khalifa Ben Asker is briefly arrested and imprisoned by order of the governor Souf.[1][b] During the first months of 1916, the constant divisions among the Senussi leaders cause the disintegration of the political unity established under the nominal authority of Si Ahmed and his Tripolitanian proconsul, Souf.[1]
By the end of May 1916, Zuwarah is reoccupied by the Italians. Despite the bombings by warships, Khalifa Ben Asker's and Mahdi Es Sunni's troops take the Ibadhi citadel of Fossato at the end of the summer. By autumn, all positions still held by the Italian party fall one after the other. By the end of 1916, the Italians control only Zuwarah and Tripoli.[1]
In 1917, the French army in Tunisia was reduced to 8,000 soldiers. In August and October 1918, Khalifa ben Asker launched his final attacks, responding to Prince Osman Fuad's call.[c]
Aftermath
By 1918, with World War I ending and France reinforcing its colonial rule, the revolt came to an end. Between 800 and 1,000 insurgents had died in total.[8]
Notes
- ^ "…with 748 French and natives killed, and 1,548 dead from sickness and disease."[4]
- ^ "What really checked Khalifa ben Asker was the fury of Mohammed Suf al-Mahmudi, who arrested him."[7]
- ^ "In 1917 the French strength in Tunisia fell back to 8,000 men. Khalifa ben Asker had a final flurry in August and October 1918, renewing his attacks in response to Prince Osman Fuad's call."[7]
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Meynier 1981.
- ^ a b Allain 2008, p. 115.
- ^ (France), Faculté des lettres et sciences humaines d'Aix (1967). Travaux et mémoires. University of Michigan. p. 131.
- ^ a b c Ling 1967, p. 110.
- ^ a b Jacobs, Daniel (2009). The Rough Guide to Tunisia. p. 446.
- ^ Triaud, Jean-Louis (December 31, 1994). La Légende noire de la Sanûsiyya : une confrérie musulmane saharienne sous le regard français (1840-1930) (in French). p. 795. ISBN 9782402380805.
- ^ a b Strachan, Hew (February 6, 2003). The First World War. Vol. 1. ISBN 9780191608346.
- ^ Martin 2018.
Bibliography
- Meynier, Gilbert (1981). L'Algérie révélée (in French). pp. 491–495. ISBN 9782600040983.
- Allain, Jean-Claude (2008). Des étoiles et des croix (in French). ISBN 9782878544206.
- Ling, Dwight L. (1967). Tunisia, from protectorate to republic. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9782878544206.
- Martin, Roland (July 2018). Histoires de Tunisie (PDF). ISBN 9782900082188.