Health and safety hazards of 3D printing

Research on the health and safety hazards of 3D printing is ongoing as the industry expands, with devices more easily available to the public. In 2025, The American Society of Safety Engineers, now known as the American Society of Safety Professionals, published a scholarly journal on the implications and effects created by 3D printing, emphasizing the hazardous environment and health effects created by the practice. ^[1]

As 3D printing has evolved and progressed throughout the years, newer, diverse methods of printing have been employed depending on the desired final product or materials available. The following are the most common methods that can be found both in the professional field and the public market. ^[2]

• Binder jetting: Consist of two main components, liquid binder and ceramic/metal powder. As binder is sprayed the powders solidify, which are then heated to remove the binder and cement the remaining material.
• Directed energy deposition (DED): Similar to fused deposition modeling but uses a metal powder or wire which is molten as the print head deposits it.
• Fused deposition modeling: Filament is heated up and melted to then be layered by a fine tip nozzle (most common in open markets).
• Material jetting: Use of small quantities of ink as feed material which is placed onto a platform. As droplets solidify, the following layer begins to be placed.
• Powder bed fusion: Materials such as plastic, metal, ceramic and glass powders are layered by lasers or other high energy sources to solidify into structure.
• Sheet lamination: Cuts and bonds thin materials like paper and aluminum foil by using laser or a sharp blade.
• Stereolithography (SLA): UV laser is used on photopolymer resin to harden and shape the object layer by layer.

As the industry expands and transforms, 3d printing's advancements have been both technical and commercial. Beginning to be adopted around the world inside classrooms, medical institutions, orthodontist offices, and private residences, potential risks are ever more increasing.^[3]

Emissions from fused filament printers^[4] can include a large number of ultrafine particles^[5] and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).^[6][7][8] The toxicity from emissions varies by source material due to differences in size, chemical properties, and quantity of emitted particles.^[6] Excessive exposure to VOCs can lead to irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, as well as, headache, loss of coordination, and nausea, while some of the chemical emissions of fused filament printers have also been linked to asthma.^[6][9] Based on animal studies, carbon nanotubes and carbon nanofibers sometimes used in fused filament printing can cause pulmonary effects including inflammation, granulomas, and pulmonary fibrosis when at the nanoparticle size.^[10] A National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) study noted particle emissions from a fused filament peaked a few minutes after printing started and returned to baseline levels 100 minutes after printing ended.^[6] Workers may also inadvertently transport materials outside the workplace on their shoes, garments, and body, which may pose hazards for other members of the public.^[11]

Laser sintering and laser beam melting systems for additive manufacturing have become more important recently. The Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (IFA) together with German social accident insurance institutions conducted a measurement program on inhalation exposure to hazardous substances during laser deposition welding and laser beam melting with alloyed steels and nickel-, aluminium- and titanium-based alloys. No chromium(VI) compounds were detected in the workplace air during the process when materials containing chromium were processed, and the assessment criteria were complied with during processes with the other metal powders. One reason for this is that the machines are usually operated with encapsulation or dust extraction in order to achieve the required product quality. Since many work steps before and after the process including the handling of powder or powdered parts are performed manually or semi-automatically, there are huge effects on the degree of inhalation exposure and the measured values vary broadly. It is therefore difficult to derive tailored measures for these processes.^[12]

Carbon nanoparticle emissions and processes using powder metals are highly combustible and raise the risk of dust explosions.^[13] At least one case of severe injury was noted from an explosion involved in metal powders used for fused filament printing.^[14]

Additional hazards include burns from hot surfaces such as: lamps and print head blocks, exposure to laser or ultraviolet radiation, electrical shock, mechanical injury from being struck by moving parts, as well as noise and ergonomic hazards and now even lasers which can damage eyes or skin.^[15][16][17] Other concerns involve gas and material exposures (in particular nanomaterials), material handling, static electricity, moving parts and pressures.^[18]

Hazards to health and safety also exist from post-processing activities done to finish parts after they have been printed. These post-processing activities can include chemical baths, sanding, polishing, or vapor exposure to refine surface finish, as well as general subtractive manufacturing techniques such as drilling, milling, or turning to modify the printed geometry.^[19] Any technique that removes material from the printed part has the potential to generate particles that can be inhaled or cause eye injury if proper personal protective equipment is not used, such as respirators or safety glasses. Caustic baths are often used to dissolve support material used by some 3D printers that allows them to print more complex shapes. These baths require personal protective equipment to prevent injury to exposed skin.^[16]

In some cases, printers employ the use of inert gasses such argon or nitrogen to form a noncombustible zone within the printing chamber. If said gasses are exposed to the outer atmosphere, within a room, oxygen can be removed and asphyxiation becomes a new hazard. ^[2]

Since 3D imaging creates items by fusing materials together, there runs the risk of layer separation in some devices made using 3D imaging. For example, in January 2013, the US medical device company, DePuy, recalled their knee and hip replacement systems. The devices were made from layers of metal, and shavings had come loose – potentially harming the patient.^[20]

Recent findings not that best ways to deter and lessen effects created by 3D printing consist of using proper ventilation, employing proactive personal protective equipment, safety demonstrations, following of guidelines and equipment service are the best methods to prevent and mitigate the impact of the hazards created throughout the process of printing.^[1] With older hazard controls such as manufacturer-supplied covers and full enclosures, using proper ventilation, keeping workers away from the printer, using respirators, turning off the printer if it jammed, and using lower emission printers and filaments remain useful as well.^[6]

Although no occupational exposure limits specific to 3D printer emissions exist, certain source materials used in 3D printing, such as carbon nanofiber and carbon nanotubes, have established occupational exposure limits at the nanoparticle size.^[6][21]

As of January 2026, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) published an updated set of recommendations as to how 3D printing can be safe to be used by anyone. The updated standards covered updated health risks found as well as proper precautions personal users, employers, small business and even schools can take to prevent harm. ^[17]

• 3D printer cabinet, encapsulation that can provide better control of the environment around a 3D printer
• Automatic fire suppression, fire suppression systems that operate without human control
• Thermal runaway, potential fire hazard of 3D printer hotends