Gun, Earl of Chong

Earl of Chong
Gun
鯀
Gun (鯀) in small seal script.
Personal details
Diedc. 2300-2200 BCE
Feather Mountain (modern-day Lianyungang, Jiangsu)
Cause of deathExecuted (殛) or old age during exile
SpouseNüzhi 女志
ChildrenYu the Great
Parent
  • Luoming 駱明 (father)
Gun, Earl of Chong
鯀 in oracle bone script
Traditional Chinese鯀
Simplified Chinese鲧
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyingǔn
Bopomofoㄍㄨㄣˇ
Wade–Gileskun3
Middle Chinese
Middle ChinesekwonX
Old Chinese
Zhengzhang/*kuːnʔ/

Gun, Earl of Chong (Chinese: 崇伯鯀; pinyin: Chóngbó Gǔn; Wade–Giles: Ch'ung2-po2 Kun3, lit. "big fish"[1]) was a ruler of the State of Chong during the Taotang clan and Youyu clan eras of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period of traditional Chinese historiography. He is said to have been the father of Yu the Great, the founder of the Xia dynasty.[2] As ruler Chong, Gun was appointed to the task of controlling the Great Flood by Emperor Yao on the advice of the Four Mountains. Gun used dykes to try to stop the flooding, but the dykes collapsed, killing many people, leading to either his execution or exile by Emperor Shun, depending on account. He is thus labelled as one of the Four Criminals.

Etymology & Identity

The character used for Gun's 鯀 (standard Chinese gǔn) name is unusual and not usually used in the names of individuals; it is furthermore rarely used to refer to anything other than Gun himself. In historical dictionaries, it literally translates to "big fish," as seen in Shuowen Jiezi and repeated in later works such as Kangxi Dictionary. However, come the classical period, the productive use of the word appeared to have ceased.

The earliest uses of Gun are in oracle bone inscriptions, where it is used as a placename in present-day Yucheng County, Henan. Bronze inscriptions record the name being used, such as the Gun Huan ding (鯀還鼎) and Shi Qiang pan (史牆盤) during the reign of King Gong of Zhou. However, none of these are in reference to this individual.[3]

According to Schuessler (2009), 鯀 (standard Chinese gǔn < Old Chinese *kwə̂nʔ) is the same word as 鮌 (gǔn < OC *kwə̂nʔ) and 鯤 (kūn < OC *kûn), the latter being a mythical giant fish mentioned in Zhuangzi.[4][5] Taiping Yulan (Siku Quanshu version) quotes "Records of Natural Conditions and Social Customs" (風土記) that the 鯤 Kūn[a] is also colloquially known as 海鰌 hǎiqiū (literally: "sea loach"),[7] which in turn has been identied with 鯨鯢 jīngní "bull-whales and cow-whales" by Emperor Yuan of Liang in his treatise Jinlouzi (金樓子 "Master of the Golden Chamber").[8]

In his treatise "Commentaries on a miscellany of marine creatures in Fujian" (閩中海錯疏; Mǐnzhōng hǎicuò shū), Ming scholar Tu Benjun (屠本畯) states that the 馬鮫; mǎjiāo; "Chinese mackerel, Chinese seerfish" is also called 章鮌; zhānggǔn.[9] Wolfram Eberhard (1968) suggests that Chinese texts' descriptions of 鯀 Gǔn as a "naked one" and "dark fish" (玄魚)[10][b] fit the eel.[12]

In traditional historiography

The Bamboo Annals record Gun as being an Earl or Count (伯) of the State of Chong, the same state as the one governed by Marquess Hu of Chong during the Late Shang period, during the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period, specifically during the era of the Youyu clan.[13] He would marry a member of the Youshen clan (有莘氏), Nuzhi (女志), and would have a child, Wenming (文命), who would later be known as Yu the Great.[14]

During the reign of Emperor Yao around c. 2300-2200 BCE, an apocalyptic flood struck the Taotang clan, causing enormous suffering to the people into the period in which the Youyu clan ruled. Gun was chosen by Emperor Yao to control the flooding on the recommendation of the Four Mountains (四嶽), after he determined his son and current Minister of Works inadequate. Yao complained that Gun tends to disobey orders and ruins his companions, but the Four Mountains insisted out of desperation for the floods to receive some sort of control, stating that if Gun is found to be useless, then it shall be so. Gun would work at controlling the floods for nine years,[15] building walls 3 ren high.[16]

Lüshi Chunqiu by Lü Buwei[c] records an anecdote where Gun protested against the appointment of Emperor Shun when Emperor Yao intended to abdicate, on the grounds that Emperors know the Way of Heaven, and those who know the way of the land became the Three Dukes (三公). Although Gun understood the way of the land, he did not become one of the Three Dukes. Lü also records Gun deliberately disobeying the orders of Yao to trouble him, such as not responding to summons and instead wandering the kingdom.[17]

Death and veneration

After nine years, despite initial success, Gun saw little progress in his attempts to control the floods. He would be imprisoned for life at Feather Mountain (羽山, at the present day Lianyungang, Jiangsu), far away from Youyu-shi civilisation, much to the horror of Yu the Great, who would be so beside himself to the point of not entering his home for over a decade. Sima Qian says he was later executed by Emperor Shun in hopes of changing the Dongyi, and was thus placed amongst the Four Criminals.[15] K. C. Wu argues that an execution did not happen based on misinterpretations of the character ji (殛), believing it was an exile in line with alternate accounts.[18] Wang Chong records in Lunheng that Gun's spirit became a yellow bear after his execution.[19]

The Book of Rites records the Xia dynasty as giving jiao 郊 sacrifices to Gun as the individual to receive the Mandate of Heaven and pass it down to Yu the Great. This is placed in opposition to the Shang dynasty giving sacrifice to Ming, the Youyu clan doing so to Emperor Ku, and the Zhou dynasty doing so to Houji.[20][19]

Alternative accounts

The above narratives are generally consistent across texts, but several texts are conflicted as to how and when Gun was executed.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas records that in order to make dykes that would ward off floods, Gun stole Xirang (息壤) (self-renewing soil) from the gods. After the dykes were finished, when the water levels rose, the magical earth of the dyke also rose to keep the water out. It worked very well at first, but when the dykes rose too high (in the legend, they rose to nine rèn (仞; "an ancient Chinese measure of between 1 and 3 meters"), they collapsed, resulting in the death of many people in the subsequent flood. Due to this accident, Gun was executed by Zhurong.[21][22]

Han Feizi records an alternate tale of Gun's death, being that he protested against the appointment of Emperor Shun on the grounds of his common birth, which resulted in Yao executing him.[23] Other sources however state that he committed suicide by jumping into an abyss, transformed into an animal and became the god of the abyss.[2][24]

Evaluation

In the Book of Documents, specifically the Book of Zhou, Jizi recalls the story of Gun failing to control the floods and placing it within the tradition of Wuxing, believing that he had thrown the five elements into disorder.[25] In Chu Ci, specifically Heavenly Questions and Li Sao, Gun is portrayed in a noticeably more sympathetic light, with the writers decrying the hopeless task that Gun was put up to, and that his body did not decay for three years after his death.[26]

Zhang Shoujie's Correct Meanings of Records of the Grand Historian (史記正義) identifies Gun with Taowu ("Block-Stump"), one of the Four Perils (四凶), as part of a broader equivalence between the Four Criminals and Four Perils.[27][28]

Historicity

The historicity of the Great Flood narrative is disputed, with some believing it to be the Jishi Gorge outburst flood from c. 1920 BCE,[29] while others associate it with typhoon-induced disasters from c. 3000 BCE.[30] However, despite the scale of the flood as it occurred as stated in the Chinese classics, its historical location has not been ascertained as of 2026.[31] Therefore, Gun's life is also in question.

Family

According to Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian, Gun's father was Zhuanxu, grandfather was Changyi, and great-grandfather was the Yellow Emperor, Changyi & Gun being mere officials, not emperors.[32][33][34][35] Book of Han, quoting Lord Yu Imperial Lineage, stated that Gun was a five-generation-descendant of Zhuanxu.[36] The Classic of Mountains and Seas stated that Gun (also known as "White Horse" Báimǎ) was the son of Luómíng (駱明), who in turn was the son of the Yellow Emperor.[37]

The Classic of Mountains and Seas also records that Gun has family ties to Huantou "Happy Head", also known as Huandou "Happy Helmet", one of the Four Criminals. The text also records that Gun's personal name was Bai Ma (白馬).[38]

See also

Note

  1. ^ Sibu Congkan (四部叢刊) version of Taiping Yulan has 鯢 ní "cow-whales" here instead of 鯤 Kūn.[6]
  2. ^ "Records of picked-up Leftovers" (拾遺記) by Wang Jia (王嘉) additionally describes the dark fish, whom Gun became after drowning himself, as having scales and barbels.[11]
  3. ^ This source records Gun as a Marquess (侯), in conflict with other texts

References

  1. ^ Kangxi Dictionary, "魚 radical 7" quote: "鯀：《唐韻》《集韻》《正韻》𠀤古本切，音袞。《說文》魚也。《玉篇》大魚也。又《書·堯典》於，鯀哉。《傳》鯀，崇伯之名。《釋文》禹父也。《廣韻》亦作鮌。"
  2. ^ a b Yves Bonnefoy (1993). Asian mythology (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-226-06456-7.
  3. ^ 鯀 in CUHK 漢語多功能字庫https://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk//Lexis/lexi-mf/search.php?word=%E9%AF%80
  4. ^ Schuessler, Axel. (2009) Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi. p. 317, 333-4
  5. ^ Zhuangzi, "Enjoyment in Untroubled Ease" quote: "北冥有魚，其名為鯤。鯤之大，不知其幾千里也。" translation: "In the Northern Ocean there is a fish, the name of which is Kun - I do not know how many li in size."
  6. ^ Taiping Yulan, "Vol. 68: Section Earth No. 33 (地部三十三) - Subsection Lakes (潮水)", quote:「風土記曰俗說鯢一名海鰌」. SBCK version, vol. 15, p. 9 of 116
  7. ^ Taiping Yulan, "Vol. 68: Section Earth No. 33 (地部三十三) - Subsection Lakes (潮水)", quote:「風土記曰俗說鯤一名海鰌」, (SKQSh version)
  8. ^ Jinlouzi "vol. 5" (SKQSh version); quoted in Taiping Yulan, "vol. 938 - Scaled & Armored (Animals) - Section Sea Loach", quote:「金樓子曰鯨鯢一名海鰌」, (SKQSh version)
  9. ^ Commentaries on a miscellany of marine creatures in Fujian "vol. 2 - scaled [creatures] section B - Majiao" quote: "馬鮫，青斑色，無鱗有齒，又名章鮌青斑色，無鱗有齒，又名章鮌" translation: "mǎjiāo: blue-colored, mottled, scaleless, having teeth; also called a zhānggǔn".
  10. ^ Wang Jia, Records of Picked-up Leftovers "vol. 2 - Yu of Xia" quote: "鯀自沉於羽淵，化為玄魚"
  11. ^ Wang Jia, Records of picked-up leftovers "vol. 2 - Yu of Xia" quote: "時揚須振鱗"
  12. ^ Eberhard, Wolfram. 1968. The Local Cultures of South and East China. E. J. Brill. p. 350-351
  13. ^ 《竹書紀年 帝堯陶唐氏》六十一年，命崇伯鯀治河。
  14. ^ Sima, Qian. "帝繫". In Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 大戴禮記. Chinese Text Project.
  15. ^ a b Sima, Qian. "五帝本紀, 夏本紀". In Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 史記. Chinese Text Project.
  16. ^ Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 淮南子. Chinese Text Project.
  17. ^ Lü Buwei. "行論". In Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 呂氏春秋. Chinese Text Project.
  18. ^ Wu, K. C. (1981). The Chinese heritage (1. ed.). New York: Crown. pp. 86, 105, note 109. ISBN 0-517-54475X.
  19. ^ a b "Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 論衡. Chinese Text Project.
  20. ^ "Donald Sturgeon (ed.). "祭法". 禮記 [Book of Rites]. Chinese Text Project. 祭法：有虞氏禘黃帝而郊嚳，祖顓頊而宗堯。夏后氏亦禘黃帝而郊鯀，祖顓頊而宗禹。殷人禘嚳而郊冥，祖契而宗湯。周人禘嚳而郊稷，祖文王而宗武王。
  21. ^ Donald Sturgeon (ed.). "海內經". 山海經. Chinese Text Project. 「洪水滔天。鯀竊帝之息壤以堙洪水，不待帝命。帝令祝融殺鯀于羽郊。鯀復生禹。帝乃命禹卒布土以定九州。」
  22. ^ Yang, Lihui; An, Deming (2008). Handbook of Chinese Mythology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533263-6. 218
  23. ^ Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 韓非子. Chinese Text Project. 堯欲傳天下於舜，鯀諫曰：「不祥哉！孰以天下而傳之於匹夫乎？」堯不聽，舉兵而誅，殺鯀於羽山之郊。共工又諫曰：「孰以天下而傳之於匹夫乎？」堯不聽，又舉兵而誅，共工於幽州之都。於是天下莫敢言無傳天下於舜。仲尼聞之曰：「堯之知，舜之賢，非其難者也。夫至乎誅諫者必傳之舜，乃其難也。」一曰。「不以其所疑敗其所察則難也。」
  24. ^ Zuo Qiuming. "昭公七年". In Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 春秋左傳. Chinese Text Project. 「以君之明，子為大政，其何厲之有？昔堯殛鯀于羽山，其神化為黃熊，以入于羽淵。實為夏郊，三代祀之。晉為盟主，其或者未之祀也乎？」
  25. ^ Sima, Qian. "洪範". In Donald Sturgeon (ed.). 尚書. Chinese Text Project. 箕子乃言曰：「我聞在昔，鯀堙洪水，汩陳其五行。帝乃震怒，不畀『洪範』九疇，彝倫攸斁。鯀則殛死，禹乃嗣興，天乃錫禹『洪範』九疇，彝倫攸敘。
  26. ^ Donald Sturgeon (ed.). "天問，離騷". 楚辭. Chinese Text Project.
  27. ^ Shiji Zhengyi "Volume 1", quote: "鯀檮机也" Siku Quanshu version, Zhejiang university's copy p. 133 of 156
  28. ^ Book of Documents "Canon of Shun" quote: "流共工于幽洲，放驩兜于崇山，竄三苗于三危，殛鯀于羽山，四罪而天下咸服。" translation: "[Shun] exiled Gonggong (Join-Work) to You province, banished Huandou (Happy-Head) to Mount Chong, expulsed Sanmiao (Three-Miao) to Sanwei (now in Gansu), and executed/imprisoned Gun (Big-Fish) in Feather Mountain. The Four Criminals were thus subdued, all under Heaven were convinced."
  29. ^ Wu, Qinglong; Zhao, Zhijun; Liu, Li; Granger, Darryl E.; Wang, Hui; Cohen, David J.; Wu, Xiaohong; Ye, Maolin; Bar-Yosef, Ofer; Lu, Bin; Zhang, Jin; Zhang, Peizhen; Yuan, Daoyang; Qi, Wuyun; Cai, Linhai; Bai, Shibiao (5 August 2016). "Outburst flood at 1920 BCE supports historicity of China's Great Flood and the Xia dynasty". Science. 353 (6299): 579–582. doi:10.1126/science.aaf0842.
  30. ^ Ding, Ke; Li, Siyang; Ding, Aijun; Lu, Houyuan; Zhang, Jianping; Xi, Dazhi; Huang, Xin; Lou, Sijia; Tang, Xiaodong; Qiu, Xin; He, Lejun; Ma, Yue; Lin, Haoxian; Zhang, Shiyan; Zhou, Derong; Zhou, Xiaolu; Tan, Zhe-Min; Fu, Congbin; Ge, Quansheng (4 March 2026). "Archeological data with AI- and physics-based modeling explain typhoon-induced disasters in inland China around 3000 yr B.P.". Science Advances. 12 (10) eaeb1598. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aeb1598.
  31. ^ Han, Jian-Chiu (31 March 2017). "Comment on "Outburst flood at 1920 BCE supports historicity of China's Great Flood and the Xia dynasty"". Science. 355 (6332): 1382–1382. doi:10.1126/science.aal1369.
  32. ^ Sima Qian, Shiji, "Annals of Xia" quote: "禹之父曰鯀，鯀之父曰帝顓頊，顓頊之父曰昌意，昌意之父曰黃帝。禹者，黃帝之玄孫而帝顓頊之孫也。禹之曾大父昌意及父鯀皆不得在帝位，為人臣。"
  33. ^ Book of Generations' Origins (世本) "Xia" quote: "顓頊生鯀。…… 鯀為顓頊子。…… 顓頊生𩩌，𩩌生高密，是為禹也。
  34. ^ Dai & Gong (2003), p. 38
  35. ^ Zynews.com. "Zynews.com Archived 2011-07-18 at the Wayback Machine." Xia dynasty brief history. Retrieved on 2010-09-18.
  36. ^ Hanshu "Chapter on Regulations and Calendars B" text: "伯禹帝系曰，顓頊五世而生鯀，鯀生禹"
  37. ^ Shanhaijing vol. 18 "黄帝生駱明，駱明生白馬，白馬是為鯀。"
  38. ^ Shanhaijing, vol. 10 "鯀妻士敬，士敬子曰炎融，生驩頭。" translation: "Gun's wife is Shijing (Lady-Respect), Lady-Respect's son is Yanrong (Flame-Steam), bears Huantou (Happy-Head)."

Works cited

  • 戴逸 (Dai Yi); 龔書鐸 (Gōng Shūduó) (2003). 中國通史. 史前 夏 商 西周 [History of China. Illustrated student edition]. Intelligence Press. ISBN 962-8792-80-6.
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