Golden Light Sutra

The Golden Light Sutra (Sanskrit: Suvarṇa­prabhāsottamasūtra, lit. Sublime Golden Light Sutra; Chinese: 金光明經, Jin guangming jing) is a Mahayana Buddhist scripture, which has been important as an apotropaic and purificatory text. Much of the sutra is directed at or involves monarchs and it has thus been an important source for Buddhist states and rulers who wish to protect themselves and their nations.[1]

The title of the sutra comes from the central fourth chapter, in which a lay bodhisattva named Ruciraketu sees a shining golden drum in a dream. The drum emanates light and a hundred-verse prayer to the Buddha when beaten. Much of the subsequent sutra teaches the recitation of this prayer along with devotion to the Golden Light Sutra itself.[1] The Golden Light also contains a key chapter on repentance, which is a central practice in East Asian Buddhism.[2]

Divine protection is another key teaching of the text, which explains how numerous divine beings, including the Four Heavenly Kings, the goddess of the earth, Sarasvatī, and Śrī, will protect those who recite the prayer and the sutra.[1] The sutra also emphasizes that kings who support and honor the recitation of the Golden Light Sutra will have a prosperous and peaceful kingdom, free of invasions, disasters and famine.[1] Due to these purported benefits, the Golden Light became an influential ritual text in Mahayana Buddhism. It is still recited in East Asian Buddhism and in Tibetan Buddhism for its protective and pacifying effects.

Overview

The sutra was originally written in India in Sanskrit and was translated several times into Chinese by Dharmakṣema, Yijing, and others, and was later translated into Tibetan and other languages. Johannes Nobel published Sanskrit and Tibetan editions of the text.[3][4][5] The sutra remains influential in East Asian Buddhism.[6]

The name of the sutra derives from the chapter called "The Confession of the Golden Drum", where the bodhisattva Ruchiraketu dreams of a great drum that radiates a sublime golden light, symbolizing the dharma or teachings of Śākyamuni Buddha.[7] Ruchiraketu then hears a verse prayer (also called the "Golden Light"). The prayer is at once a wish for the happiness of all beings and a confession of one's bad deeds.[8]

A key message of the sutra is that the Four Heavenly Kings (Chinese: 四大天王; pinyin: Sì Dàtiānwáng) and other devas protect the ruler who is faithful to the Golden Light Sutra, worships it and lives virtuously, governing his country in a proper manner.[9] Various chapters are concerned with different deities who vow to uphold the sutra and grant protection along with numerous boons to those who preach and listen to this sutra.[8] They include the goddesses Sarasvatī (Chinese: 大辨才天; pinyin: Dà Biàncáitiān, J: Benzaiten), Śrīmahādevī (Chinese: 大功德天; pinyin: Dà Gōngdétiān) and Prithvi who vow to protect any bhikṣu who will uphold and teach the sutra.[10]

The sutra also contains some elements which may have influenced Esoteric Buddhism, including an early depiction of the mandala of the four buddhas of the four cardinal directions. These same four buddhas comprise later Buddhist mandalas in the same positions, and later came to be known as the main Buddhas of the Five Tathagatas schema.[1]

In East Asia

The Golden Light Sutra became one of the most important sutras in East Asian Buddhism due to its apotropaic, protective and purificatory qualities. The sutra was said to save people from being reborn in hell realms and to protect a country from disasters.[1][9]

During the Sui dynasty (581–618) in China, the eminent monk and Patriarch of the Tiantai tradition, Zhiyi, initiated a ritual ceremony known as Gongfo Zhaitian (供佛齋天), meaning "Puja of Offering to the Buddhas and the Devas", according to the rites prescribed in the Golden Light Sutra.[11] During the ceremony, offerings are made to the Buddhas as well as the twenty-four devas as a sign of respect.[12] This ceremony has been carried down through tradition into modern times and is customarily performed in Chinese Buddhist temples on the 9th day of the 1st month of the Chinese calendar.[12] This Golden Light Sutra ritual tradition also influenced Tendai Buddhist ritual culture in Japan.

The Golden Light soon came to be seen as an important text for protecting an entire country in East Asia, and often was read publicly to ward off threats. The Golden Light was translated not just into the major Buddhist languages of Chinese and Tibetan but also into Uighur, Mongol, Sogdian, Khotanese, and Tangut. Many manuscripts of the sutra have survived in different regions.[13] Yijing (635-713) was influential in popularising the Golden Light. His translation became the basis for later translations into Tibetan, Uighur, Sogdian and Tangut editions.[13]

The first reading of the Golden Light in Japan was at a court ceremony during around 660 CE, when the Tang dynasty of China and Silla of Korea defeated the state of Baekje of Korea and were threatening Japan.

In 741 Emperor Shōmu of Japan founded provincial monasteries for monks (国分寺) and nuns (国分尼寺) in each province. The official name of the monasteries was the Temple for Protection of the State by the Four Heavenly Kings Golden Light Sutra (traditional Chinese: 金光明經四天王護国之寺). The 20 monks who lived there recited the Sovereign Kings Golden Light Sutra on a fixed schedule to protect the country.[14]

Textual history

A Sanskrit edition of the sutra exists, it was first edited by S. C. Das and S. C. Shastri in 1898 (Calcutta). This was followed by a new edition by B. Nanjio and H. Idzumi (Japan, 1931).[1] It was further studied and edited by Johannes Nobel (1937) on the basis of a Nepalese manuscript.[15] Various other Sanskrit fragments (up to 80) have also been found. The Sanskrit text was translated into English by Emmerick (1970).[16]

The Golden Light is mentioned in numerous Indic works (three tantras and ten commentaries) as an important text for ritual recitation. Various other Buddhist texts mention it as an important text to be recited, including Śāntideva’s Śikṣāsamuccaya.[1] The Golden Light also remains a key ritual text in Newar Buddhism, where it is one of the "nine Dharmas", the central Mahayana sutras in the tradition.[1]

The Golden Light Sutra has been translated into Chinese, Saka ("Khotanese"), Old Uyghur by Shingqo Sheli Tutung,[17][18] Tangut, Classical Tibetan, Mongolian,[19] Manchu, Korean and Japanese.[20][21]

Chinese

Three canonical Chinese translations have survived:[22]

  • Jin guangming jin (金光明經 T663) translated by Dharmakṣema (385–433)
  • Hebu jin guangming (合部金光明經 T664), a synoptic translation by Baogui, written in 597
  • Jin guangming zuisheng wang jin (金光明最勝王經 T665), by Yijing (635–713). This became the most popular edition in East Asian Buddhism.

An extracanonical version, ascribed to Paramārtha, (499–569) is extant in a Japanese manuscript.

Japanese

One of the earliest Japanese annotations was an 8th-century kunten translation of the Yijing Chinese translation housed in Saidaiji Temple.[20]

In 1933, Izumi published the first complete Japanese translation directly from Sanskrit, followed by another translation by Ama a year later.[23]

Tibetan

There are at least three main canonical Tibetan translations which reflect the growth of the sutra over time:[24][25][1]

  1. The twenty-one-chapter version (Tib. I): 'Phags pa gser 'od dam pa mdo sde'i dbang po'i rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo D557/Q176. Attributed to the reign of King Khri lde btsug brtan (705–755), this is the oldest Tibetan rendering. It is relatively concise and aligns closely with the extant Sanskrit text.
  2. The twenty-nine-chapter version (Tib. II): 'Phags pa gser 'od dam pa mdo sde'i dbang po'i rgyal po zhes bya ba theg pa chen po'i mdo D556/Q175, translated from Sanskrit by Jinamitra, Śīlêndrabodhi, and Ye shes sde. Translated during the reign of King Ral pa can (804–816) by the scholars Jinamitra, Silendrabodhi, and Ye shes sde. This version effectively doubled the length of the sutra by incorporating expansive chapters on Mahayana philosophy, including the Trikaya (three bodies of Buddha) and the ten stages of the bodhisattva.
  3. The thirty-one chapter version (Tib. III): 'Phags pa gser 'od dam pa mchog tu rnam par rgyal ba'i mdo sde'i rgyal po theg pa chen po'i mdo D555/Q174. A translation of the Chinese version by the monk Yijing (d. 713) by Chos grub.

The historical timeline of the sutra is supported by significant manuscript discoveries in the 20th century. Archeological expeditions in Dunhuang uncovered numerous fragments of the sutra. These caches contain abundant fragments of the archaic Tib. I but none of the expanded Tib. II.[25] As Tib. II offered a more refined translation and a broader philosophical scope, it gradually rendered Tib. I obsolete in the eyes of monastic editors. As such, many later editions of the Tibetan Canon, such as the black Narthang block print, omitted the short earlier version entirely, viewing it as a redundant subset of the expanded text.[25]

Old Turkic

An almost complete translation of the Golden Light Sutra into Old Uyghur in the 11th century was carried out by the scribe Shingqo Sheli Tutung. This particular translation would be revised two times by Uyghur and Yugur monks, in 1361 and 1687 respectively.[26]

Western languages

In 1958, Nobel published a German translation, based on Yijing's Chinese text.[27]

In 1970, R. E. Emmerick produced an English translation of the short, condensed Sanskrit version of the Sutra of Golden Light into English.[28]

In 2007, the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition, Lama Zopa Rinpoche's Buddhist organization, produced a translation of the 21 chapter version of the Tibetan translation, the most abbreviated and condensed version.[29] In 2023, 84000.co published a translation of the 21 chapter version, followed in 2024 by the first English translations of the 29 and 31 chapter versions.[30][31][32]

Commentaries

Various commentaries on the sutra were composed in China, including:[24]

  • Profound Meaning of the Golden Light Sūtra (金光明經玄義; Jīnguāngmíng Jīng Xuányì, T 1783) by Zhiyi (transcribed by Guanding)
  • Textual Commentary on the Golden Light Sūtra (金光明經文句; Jīnguāngmíng Jīng Wénjù, T 1785) by Zhiyi (transcribed by Guanding)
  • Commentary on the Sovereign Scripture of the Sublimely Victorious Golden Light (金光明最勝王經疏 T 1788) by Huizhao 慧沼
  • Commentary on the Golden Light Sūtra (金光明經疏 T 1787) by Jizang 吉藏
  • A commentary by Paramartha (499–569) which only survives in fragments

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (1) / 84000 Reading Room". 84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha. Retrieved 2026-03-07.
  2. ^ Emmerick (1970), p. ix.
  3. ^ Nobel, Johannes (1937). Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrittext des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Nach den Handschriften und mit Hilfe der tibetischen und chinesischen Übertragungen, Leipzig: Harrassowitz
  4. ^ Nobel, Johannes (1944/1950). Suvarnaprabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrittext des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. Die tibetische Übersetzung mit einem Wörterbuch. Band 1: Tibetische Übersetzung, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag 1944. Band 2: Wörterbuch Tibetisch-Deutsch-Sanskrit, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 1950.
  5. ^ Nobel, Johannes (1958). Suvarnaprabhāsottamasūtra. Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrittext des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus. I-Tsing's chinesische Version und ihre tibetische Übersetzung. Band 1: I-Tsing's chinesische Version übersetzt, eingeleitet erläutert und mit einem photomechanischen Nachdruck des chinesischen Textes versehen. Band 2: Die tibetische Übersetzung mit kritischen Anmerkungen, Leiden: Brill
  6. ^ Buswell, Robert Jr; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2013). Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 877. ISBN 9780691157863.
  7. ^ Yiengpruksawan, Mimi Hall (1999). Hiraizumi: Buddhist Art and Regional Politics in Twelfth-Century Japan. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 167. ISBN 9780674392052.
  8. ^ a b Ludvik, Catherine (2007). Sarasvatī riverine goddess of knowledge from the manuscript-carrying vīṇā-player to the weapon-wielding defender of the Dharma, pp. 146-147. Brill's Indological Library.
  9. ^ a b Brown, Delmer (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press. p. 393. ISBN 978-0521223522.
  10. ^ Gregory, Peter N.; Getz Jr., Daniel A. (2002). Buddhism in the Sung. University of Hawaii Press. p. 374. ISBN 9780824826819.
  11. ^ E., Emmerick, R. (2001). The Sūtra of golden light : being a translation of the Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. Pali Text Society. ISBN 0-86013-348-6. OCLC 232153257.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ a b "佛教二十四诸天_中国佛教文化网". 2016-03-04. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2021-04-26.
  13. ^ a b Radha Banerjee (2006). Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtra. British Library (https://idp.bl.uk)
  14. ^ Keyworth, George A. (2022-01-01). "On Bonshakuji as the Penultimate Buddhist Temple to Protect the State in Early Japanese History". Religions. doi:10.3390/REL13070641.
  15. ^ Nobel, Johannes. 1937. Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra, Das Goldglanz-Sūtra: ein Sanskrittext des Mahāyāna-Buddhismus, nach den Handschriften und mit Hilfe der Tibetischen und Chinesischen Übertragungen. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz.
  16. ^ Emmerick, Ronald E.,. 1970. The Sūtra of Golden Light: Being a Translation of the Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra,. London: Luzac.
  17. ^ Zieme, Peter (1996). Altun Yaruq Sudur: Vorworte und das erste Buch: Edition und Übersetzung der alttürkischen Version des Goldglanzsūtra (Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtra), Turnhout: Brepols
  18. ^ Radlov, Vasilij V (1913 - 1917). Suvarṇaprabhāsa: (sutra zolotogo bleska); tekst ujgurskoj redakcij, Sanktpeterburg. Imperatorskaja Akad. Nauk. XV. Reprint, Osnabrück. Biblio-Verlag 1970.
  19. ^ Kotwicz, Władysław (1930). Altan gerel: die westmongolische Fassung des Goldglanzsūtra nach einer Handschrift der Kgl. Bibliothek in Kopenhagen; Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
  20. ^ a b Kasuga, Masaji (1987). Saidaijibon konkomyo saishookyo koten no kokugogakuteki kenkyu. Tokyo: Benseisha.
  21. ^ Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 812. ISBN 0-02-865718-7.
  22. ^ Radich, Michael (2014). "On the Sources, Style and Authorship of Chapters of the Synoptic Suvarnaprabhāsottama-sūtra T664 Ascribed to Paramartha (Part 1)" (PDF). Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University. 17: 209. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 7, 2014. Retrieved February 10, 2014.
  23. ^ Ama, Tokuju (1934). Bonbun Wayaku Konkōmyō Saishōōkyō. Kyoto: Kōjukai Honbu.
  24. ^ a b 金光明經 (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism)
  25. ^ a b c Nobel 1937, Introduction
  26. ^ Kaya, Ceval (1994). Uygurca Altun Yaruk: Giriş, Metin ve Dizin. Türk Dil Kurumu Yayınları: 607. ISBN 975-16-0677-2.
  27. ^ Gummer, Nathalie (2015). "Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra," In Jonathan Silk, Oskar von Hinüber, Vincent Eltschinger (eds.): Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Volume 1: Literature and Languages. Leiden: Brill, p. 250
  28. ^ Emmerick, R. E. (1970). The Sūtra of Golden Light: Being a Translation of the Suvarṇabhāsottamasūtra. London, Luzac and Company Ltd. ISBN: 0718904796; 9780718904791
  29. ^ "The Golden Light Sutra". Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition. Retrieved May 13, 2013.
  30. ^ "The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (1) / 84000 Reading Room".
  31. ^ "The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (2) / 84000 Reading Room".
  32. ^ "The Sūtra of the Sublime Golden Light (3) / 84000 Reading Room".

Bibliography

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