Euphrates-Tigris Expedition

The Euphrates-Tigris Campaign was a military operation conducted by the Ottoman Army against the Safavids and Mamluks in Eastern Anatolia in 1514.

Having eliminated his last remaining brother in the Battle of Yenişehir, Yavuz Sultan Selim began to confront Shah Ismail, whom he had closely followed since his time as a prince and who was becoming increasingly dangerous. Diplomatic relations, which had lasted for a time, gave way to war. In 1514, the Ottoman army launched a campaign against Persia, and on August 23rd, at Çaldıran, located within the borders of present-day Iran, they inflicted a crushing defeat on the Safavid army. Following this, the Ottoman army, operating in Azerbaijan and the interior of Iran, returned first to Amasya due to the approaching winter, and then to Istanbul because of the impending war with Egypt.^[1]

Although winter had arrived and the Ottoman army had withdrawn from Azerbaijani territory, peace had not been signed. Therefore, the war continued, and an army had to be left on the front. Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha, who had proven himself in the sieges of Bayburt and Kemah, was assigned to this task. Idris-i Bitlisi, an important scholar, was also trying to win over the Kurdish tribes to the Ottoman side. His efforts were mostly successful, and the local tribes, unhappy with Safavid rule, began to unite under the Ottoman banner. In Diyarbakır, the most important city in the region, the people revolted, expelling the Safavid garrison from the city and sending delegates to Yavuz Sultan Selim declaring their allegiance.^[2] Having succeeded in these endeavors, the Ottoman Empire had crossed the Euphrates River. Shah Ismail, who did not tolerate this, wanted to take advantage of the Ottoman armies' evacuation of the region. For this purpose, he sent an army under the command of Nur Ali Halife to Tunceli and an army under the command of Ustaclu Kara Han to Diyarbakır. Having learned of all this through his spies, Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha gathered his forces and crossed the Euphrates in the spring of 1515.^[3][4]

Sultan Selim I ordered Murad Bey to reclaim Diyarbakir from the Safavids and gave him 8,000 soldiers. Sultan Murad then set out with an Ottoman force of 8,000 men to liberate the Ak Koyunlu territories from the Safavids . While en route to Diyarbakir , near Urfa , Sultan Murad encountered a much smaller Safavid force under the command of Ece Sultan (who would later become Kuturmuş Sultan). In this encounter, Sultan Murad, having lost his territories to the Safavids , fiercely attacked them . However, despite having the support of the Ottoman Empire, he could not escape defeat and lost his life. Following this victory, Ece Sultan beheaded Sultan Murad and sent his head to the Safavid ruler Shah Ismail as a token of victory.

Essentially, the local tribes in the region, which never achieved independence, maintained their existence by recognizing the supreme authority of the empires of the time. The Nur Ali Khalifa Rebellion, which began in 1512, caused major crises in the region and also removed the local ruler, Rüstem Bey, from power. Despite being driven from his homeland, Rüstem Bey remained loyal to Shah Ismail and fought against the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Chaldiran . Thinking that he could protect his interests on the winning side, he sought refuge with Yavuz Sultan Selim, but the sultan did not accept him and ordered his execution. Pir Hüseyin Bey, who did not hesitate to side with the sultan who had killed his father, also joined the Ottoman ranks. The Ottoman army, under the command of Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha , confronted Nur Ali Halife in the Tekir plateau near Ovacık , catching the Safavid army off guard. Launching fierce and organized attacks, Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha annihilated Nur Ali Halife and his army. Subsequently, the Ottoman army ended Safavid rule in the region, restored order, and returned to Bayburt. The administration of the region was given to Pir Hüseyin Bey, who had participated in the battle and whose ancestral homeland it was.^[5]

Coming to Diyarbakır with a force of approximately 5,000 men , Ustaclu Kara Han offered the people of Diyarbakır a surrender proposal despite their actions. Thinking that a force needed to be sent to the region because of the Siege of Diyarbakır, which began in early 1515 , the Sultan sent a small force under the command of Yiğit Ahmed Bey to help the people of Diyarbakır. Arriving at night, Yiğit Ahmed managed to break the siege in a surprise attack and enter the city through the Rum Gate.^[6]

As the siege dragged on, Shah Ismail began sending reinforcements. Following requests for aid from Diyarbakır, Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha was dispatched to the region. The Beylerbey of Amasya also received orders to join with his Sipahis. İdris-i Bitlisi, who had been organizing the Kurdish tribes until the arrival of the Ottoman army, had gathered a force of approximately 10,000 men. The Kurdish tribes gathered in Kiğı and joined Şâdî Pasha and Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha near Kara Köprü on September 10th. Kara Han, unable to risk a battle with the superior Ottoman army, lifted the siege and retreated to Mardin. The Ottoman army, which did not enter the city, began pursuing Kara Han. Kara Han, not stopping in Mardin, retreated to Sincar.^[7]

The Ottoman staff assembled at Cavsak began to argue. While Şâdî Pasha and his supporters wanted to withdraw due to the dry season, Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha and his supporters favored besieging Mardin. At this time, the people of Mardin opened the city gates to the Ottoman soldiers, but the Safavid garrison retreated to the inner citadel. Therefore, it had to be besieged, but the arguments intensified, and on the third day, Şâdî Pasha and his forces left the campaign. Upon the desire of some Kurdish beys to leave as well, Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha was forced to return to Diyarbakır to winter. Kara Han, having learned of the withdrawal of the Ottoman forces, entered Mardin with his forces.^[8] Upon hearing this, Yavuz Sultan Selim dismissed Şâdî Pasha and five of his subordinate sancakbeys and sentenced them to imprisonment. On November 4, Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha was appointed as the first Ottoman Governor of Diyarbakır.^[9]

Both commanders were acting very cautiously, as this operation would determine the fate of the front. The Ottoman army established its headquarters in Diyarbakır, and the Safavid army in Mardin, and both armies began waiting for reinforcements to be sent from their headquarters. Orders were sent to Divine Hüsrev Pasha , the governor of Karaman, and to some officers in Istanbul to join the campaign with their forces. Shah Ismail also sent important commanders such as the governor of Baghdad, Kangırıl Sultan , the governor of Hamadan, Yegan Bey, and Çuka Sultan to join Kara Han. The Ottoman Empire controlled almost all the roads and passes thanks to the local tribes being on its side. Therefore, the Safavids were sending their troops through Iraq, but even so, they were subjected to ambushes, as in Sinjar. Ottoman reinforcements also managed to besiege and capture Haruput while en route. Despite the opposition of İdris-i Bitlisî , a cavalry unit of 2,000 men was sent against Kara Han under the command of Çerkez Hüseyin Bey, the Governor of Harput. Çerkez Hüseyin Bey's task was to lure Kara Han and his forces into a trap set by Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha. Upon learning of the arrival of the Ottoman vanguard, Kara Han abandoned his camp and hid in the forest. When the Ottoman vanguard, finding the Safavid camp empty, began to loot, the Safavid troops, emerging from their hiding place, launched an attack and inflicted a complete massacre on the Ottoman cavalry in the Battle of Kerh . Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha, after the defeat, began to wait for reinforcements. When the Ottoman army was ready, it left a significant number of forces in Diyarbakır and marched against Ustaclu Kara Han, who had left his fortified position.^[10]

In the center of the Ottoman army was Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha with 2,000 musketeers and artillerymen. On the right flank was Karaman Governor Hüsrev Pasha with 6,000 Sipahi. On the left flank were 4,000 to 6,000 men, mostly irregular Kurdish cavalry. The plan was, as in the Battle of Chaldiran, to defend with firepower against the Safavid cavalry, and after the enemy formation was disrupted, to launch a counter-attack with the cavalry. Ustaclu Kara Han divided his army into two, taking the left flank himself. He assigned Baghdad Governor Kangırıl Sultan to the right flank. Realizing that he could not meet the Ottoman artillery and musketeers, Kara Han intended to repel the flank cavalry and encircle the center.^[12][13]

The battle began at midday with a fierce attack by the Safavid left flank, under the command of Ustaclu Kara Han, against the Sipahis under the command of Hüsrev Pasha. Kara Han's rapid attack put Hüsrev Pasha's flank in a difficult position. Seeing this, Bıyıklı Mehmed Pasha launched an attack on Kara Han with the Janissaries. Meanwhile, the right flank of Kangırıl Sultan and Hüseyin Bey also launched a fierce assault on the Ottoman left flank, where the tribes were located. As a result, neither side's plan succeeded, and the outcome depended on the skill of the soldiers. On the Ottoman right flank, Pir Hüseyin Bey attempted a retreat, but with the help of the tribal chiefs, he managed to hold the line. Ustaclu Kara Han, who attacked the Ottoman right flank, found himself caught in a pincer movement between the Karaman and Diyarbakır armies. Although the Safavid cavalry tried to break through the pincer, they were repeatedly met with the wrath of the musketeers. The Janissaries, remaining united and firing in unison, caused the deaths of many Safavid cavalrymen. During one of these breakthrough maneuvers, a bullet entered Kara Khan's throat. A Janissary named Nasuh, after Kara Khan fell from his horse, cut off his lifeless head and placed it on a spear, raising it into the air. The Safavid left wing, having suffered heavy losses and seeing their commander-in-chief dead, panicked and attempted to flee, but very few survived. Following the collapse of the Safavid left wing, the Ottoman army attacked the other division, led by Kangırıl Sultan. Unable to hold out for long, Kangırıl Sultan managed to escape. The battle, which began at midday, ended towards afternoon. The Safavid army was completely scattered. Most of the commanders and soldiers were killed, while the survivors took refuge in nearby friendly forts. Ottoman losses were as follows: 200 Karaman soldiers, 150 Kurds, 130 Anatolian soldiers, and a small number of Janissaries. Ustaclu Kara Han, Çuka Sultan and the head of many important Safavid commanders reached Sultan Selim I, who set out on the Great Egyptian Campaign on June 26.^[14][15]

Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha, who left some soldiers behind during the Siege of Mardin, joined the Sultan's army on the Malatya plain on August 3, 1516. Then, the Ottoman army, under the command of Yavuz Sultan Selim, entered the Syrian territories and encountered the Mamluk army under the command of Kansu Gavri on August 24, 1516.^[16]

In the center of the Ottoman army were the Janissaries and Yavuz Sultan Selim, on the right flank were Zeynel and Hüsrev Pashas, and on the left flank were Küçük Sinan and Bıyıklı Mehmet Pashas. In the center of the Mamluk army was Kansu Gavri, on the right flank was the Governor of Aleppo, Hayır Bey, and on the left flank was the Governor of Damascus, Emir Sibay . The battle began with Mamluk cavalry attacks in the early morning. None of the fierce attacks carried out by the Mamluks until the afternoon were enough to break the well-organized Ottoman army with its firepower. When the Mamluk army lost its discipline, Ottoman counter-attacks began. In this battle, which continued until the afternoon, the Mamluk army was annihilated, and the Mamluk Sultan Kansu Gavri and the Governor of Damascus, Emir Sibay, were also killed. Having emerged victorious from the plain of Mercidabık, the Ottoman army entered Aleppo on August 28, 1516, without firing a single shot. Bıyıklı Mehmet Pasha was sent back to the Safavid front.^[17]