Clam garden

A clam garden (k'yuu kudhlk'aat'iija in the Haida language,[1] lux̌ʷxiwēys in the Kwakʼwala language[2]: 2 [3]) is a traditional Indigenous management system used principally by Coast Salish peoples.[4]: 205  Clam gardens are a form of mariculture,[5]: 308  where First Nations peoples created an optimal habitat for clams by modifying the beach.[6]: 2  These clam gardens are a food source for both First Nations peoples and animals.[3] They also provide food security as they are a food source that can be readily harvested year-round.[6]: 2 

Clam gardens are found along the west coast of North America.[7][8] Over 2,000 clam gardens have been identified on the coast of Alaska, British Columbia, Washington and California.[6]: 7 [8] Though most clam gardens are currently untended, restoration of sections of previously untended clam gardens are occurring in Fulford Harbour on Salt Spring Island and on Russell Island located in the Gulf Islands National Park Reserve.[9][10]

Composition

Boulder wall

Once a location was chosen by an individual or a group of First Nations peoples, clam garden construction began with the creation of a boulder or rock wall along the shoreline of a beach.[6] Strong individuals would roll large boulders down to the lowest tideline on the beach, thus creating a rock wall.[4]: 207  The rising tide brings sediment over the rock walls, where it accumulates and creates an extended soft sediment beach area, creating ideal clam habitat.[4]: 207  The rock wall is low enough that it allows the clam garden to be submerged at high tide, but tall enough that the beach is exposed for harvesting during low tide.[4]: 207 

Due to weather and the movement of tides, rock walls require continual maintenance.[3][4]: 207  Historically, clam gardens were regularly tended to by First Nations individuals who moved rocks from inside the clam gardens onto the rock wall.[4]: 207  Both archaeological evidence and traditional knowledge assert that boulder walls were built up over time and continually maintained.[4]: 207  New rocks were regularly added to the top of the boulder wall when First Nations peoples harvested the clam beds.[4]: 207 [11]: 8 

Sediment

The accumulation of sediment trapped by the boulder wall creates a flatter beach, which is an optimal growing habitat for clams.[6]: 2  This sediment has an optimal density for clam growth, free from fine clay and silt particles that are washed away by the high tide.[4]: 207 

The density of the sediment was also due to the process of aerating the sand while clams were harvested.[3] Many clam gardens also have a high amount of gravel and shell hash, which aid in aerating the sand.[6]: 8 [12]: 6  This density allows for freer movement of clams,[3] in addition to easier removal of clams from the sediment.[4]: 204 

Animals

Clam gardens are an ideal habitat for many animals. The modified beach attracts growth of many clams, notably: butter, littleneck, cockle and horse clams.[4]: 204 [6]: 3  Animals such as barnacles, chiton, snails, crabs, eels, mussels, octopus, urchin, and sea cucumbers also live in clam gardens.[3][4]: 208 [13][14] Other animals such as ghost shrimp and worms are found buried in the loose sediment.[3]

Usage

Food source

Clam gardens were an intertidal food source for many Indigenous peoples on the Pacific Northwest Coast (including Coast Salish peoples), and provided food security to many diverse First Nation communities. Clam Gardens facilitated an abundance of clams that could be readily harvested and accessible during low tides.[4]: 202 : 205  While everyone in the community participated, women and children were heavily involved in the harvesting activity.[5]: 308 [12]: 2  Once collected, families could consume the clams immediately or smoke them to be preserved for later use.[4]: 205  During winter, clams harvested from clam gardens were important since they served as sustenance when other foods were scarce or difficult to access.[2]: 5  Some nations, such as the Kwakwaka'wakw nation, traditionally harvested clams from October to early March so as to avoid the red tide which can be associated with Paralytic Shellfish poisoning.[4]: 204 [15]: 11 

Although Clam gardens were created by people, these intertidal features also served as a habitat and source for various animals during the spring or summer,[3] including mammals (raccoons, mink, river otters, bears) and birds (sea ducks, and geese) and a host of invertebrates.[4]: 208 [16]

Knowledge transmission

Traditional clam harvesting also allowed for intergenerational knowledge transmission, with Elders passing down knowledge about clam gardens to the next generation.[5]: 308  Clam gardens were similar to an outdoor classroom, where traditional knowledge, language and cultural practices could be enacted by the community.[5]: 308 

Ownership

Each Nation has specific protocols and governance systems around resource management, and many access areas are family-based.[15]: 11  For clam gardens, families often asserted ownership by regularly tending to the beach and maintaining the rock wall.[6]: 9  These clam gardens were stewarded for the next generation.[8] Historically, unmanaged clam gardens could be harvested by anyone in the community.[12]: 8  Families could claim ownership by building their own clam garden on an undeveloped beach area in their traditional territory.[2]: 5 

Historical age

The exact age of the origin of clam gardening is unknown but current archaeological evidence indicates these features date back at least 3500–3800 years ago[17] but accurately dating clam gardens is difficult given the rock wall is often underwater, and has been subjected to boat wakes, storm surges, and rising sea levels.[10]

Archaeologists are studying the ages of clam gardens using methods such as optically stimulated luminescence of sand grains and radiocarbon dating of barnacles attached to cobbles at the base of the rock walls.[11]: 12  Scholars are using both methods to gain a better understanding of the age of clam gardens.[11]: 12  The evidence from various sites in the Salish Sea suggests walls were built up by communities over time.[11]: 12  Some dating results suggest that clam gardens range from 1000 to 1700 years old,[11]: 12  whereas other samples indicate that they date back to at least 3500 to 3800 years ago.[18][19]

Conversely, many First Nations peoples have a different perspective of clam garden creation. For example, Clan Chief Adam Dick, Kwaxsistalla of the Kwakwaka'wakw nation, states that clam gardens have been around "since the beginning of time".[4]: 202  Tom Sewid, a native watchman of the Mamalilikulla-Qwe'Qwa'Sot'Em nation, states that his ancestors have maintained clam gardens over "thousands of years", citing clam gardens as proof of title to his traditional lands.[3]

Restoration

"The Clam Garden Network", a loose affiliation of academics, researchers and First Nations groups, was formed to share current research and traditional First Nations practices related to clam garden management.[1][20]

In 2014, restoration work began to revive two clam gardens in the Gulf Islands National Park Reserve in a project between Parks Canada and the Hul'q'umi'num and W̱SÁNEĆ Nations.[9][21]

The Swinomish Tribe of Washington built a new clam garden on Kiket Island in 2022. It is believed to be the first clam garden built in the United States in over 200 years.[22]

References

  1. ^ "Gardens of plenty: K'yuu ḴudhlḴ'aat'iija (clam gardens) grow clams four times faster". Council of the Haida Nation. 25 January 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  2. ^ a b c Turner, Nancy; Recalma‐Clutesi, Kim; Duer, Douglas (26 March 2013). "Back to the Clam Gardens" (PDF). EcoTrust. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sewid, Tom, Elizaga, Andrew (18 August 2013). "Mysteries of Ancient Clam Gardens". Youtube. 2:35, 4:48. Retrieved 2 November 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Deur, Douglas; Dick, Adam; Recalma-Clutesi, Kim; Turner, Nancy J. (10 April 2015). "Kwakwaka'wakw "Clam Gardens"". Human Ecology. 43 (2). 205. doi:10.1007/s10745-015-9743-3. ISSN 0300-7839. S2CID 151151374.
  5. ^ a b c d Augustine, Skye; Dearden, Philip (2014-03-07). "Changing paradigms in marine and coastal conservation: A case study of clam gardens in the Southern Gulf Islands, Canada". The Canadian Geographer. 58 (3): 305–314. doi:10.1111/cag.12084. ISSN 0008-3658.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Groesbeck, Amy S.; Rowell, Kirsten; Lepofsky, Dana; Salomon, Anne K. (2014-03-11). "Ancient Clam Gardens Increased Shellfish Production: Adaptive Strategies from the Past Can Inform Food Security Today". PLOS ONE. 9 (3) e91235. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991235G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091235. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3949788. PMID 24618748.
  7. ^ Thomson, Jimmy (5 October 2015). "Clam Gardens Are Cultivating a New Look at Ancient Land Use". Hakai Institute. Paragraph 11. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  8. ^ a b c Snively, Gloria, Williams, Wanosts'a7 Lorna (2017). "Knowing Home: Braiding Indigenous Science with Western Science, Book 1". BC Campus Open Ed. Ancient Clam Gardens. Retrieved 2 November 2018.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ a b Britten, Liam (4 January 2017). "Gulf Islands seeing return of traditional First Nations clam gardens". CBC. Paragraph 5. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  10. ^ a b Petrescu, Sarah (2 July 2017). "Uncovering ancient secrets in a First Nations clam garden". The Times Colonist. Paragraph 10. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
  11. ^ a b c d e Neudorf, Christina M.; Smith, Nicole; Lepofsky, Dana; Toniello, Ginevra; Lian, Olav B. (9 February 2017). "Between a rock and a soft place: Using optical ages to date ancient clam gardens on the Pacific Northwest". PLOS ONE. 12 (2) e0171775. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1271775N. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171775. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5300257. PMID 28182645.
  12. ^ a b c Lepofsky, Dana; Caldwell, Megan (2013). "Indigenous marine resource management on the Northwest Coast of North America". Ecological Processes. 2 (1): 12. doi:10.1186/2192-1709-2-12. ISSN 2192-1709.
  13. ^ Lokman, Kees; Tomkins, Karen (2020-01-02). "Clam Gardens: An Alternative Approach to Coastal Adaptation". Journal of Architectural Education. 74 (1): 129–132. doi:10.1080/10464883.2020.1693840. ISSN 1046-4883. S2CID 216543064.
  14. ^ Groesbeck, Amy S.; Rowell, Kirsten; Lepofsky, Dana; Salomon, Anne K. (2014-03-11). Thrush, Simon (ed.). "Ancient Clam Gardens Increased Shellfish Production: Adaptive Strategies from the Past Can Inform Food Security Today". PLOS ONE. 9 (3) e91235. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991235G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091235. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3949788. PMID 24618748.
  15. ^ a b Jackley, Julia; Gardner, Lindsay; Djunaedi, Audrey F.; Salomon, Anne K. (2016). "Ancient clam gardens, traditional management portfolios, and the resilience of coupled human-ocean systems". Ecology and Society. 21 (4). doi:10.5751/es-08747-210420. ISSN 1708-3087.
  16. ^ Cox, Kieran D.; Davies, Hailey L.; Millard-Martin, Ben; Black, Morgan; Hessing-Lewis, Margot; Smith, Nicole F.; Juanes, Francis; Dudas, Sarah E. (2024-06-26). "Ancestral and contemporary intertidal mariculture practices support marine biodiversity in the northeast Pacific". Communications Earth & Environment. 5 (1): 351. doi:10.1038/s43247-024-01515-3. ISSN 2662-4435.
  17. ^ Smith, Nicole F.; Lepofsky, Dana; Toniello, Ginevra; Holmes, Keith; Wilson, Louie; Neudorf, Christina M.; Roberts, Christine (2019-02-27). "3500 years of shellfish mariculture on the Northwest Coast of North America". PLOS ONE. 14 (2) e0211194. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211194. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6392220. PMID 30811412.
  18. ^ Holmes, Keith; Lepofsky, Dana; Smith, Nicole F.; Crowell, Travis D.; Salomon, Anne K. (2022-10-26). "Ancestral sea gardens supported human settlements for at least 3,800 years on the Northwest Coast of North America". Frontiers in Earth Science. 10. doi:10.3389/feart.2022.988111. ISSN 2296-6463.
  19. ^ Smith, Nicole F.; Lepofsky, Dana; Toniello, Ginevra; Holmes, Keith; Wilson, Louie; Neudorf, Christina M.; Roberts, Christine (2019-02-27). "3500 years of shellfish mariculture on the Northwest Coast of North America". PLOS ONE. 14 (2) e0211194. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211194. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6392220. PMID 30811412.
  20. ^ Goodman, John (2016-07-15). "Clam gardens provide new perspective on First Nations history". North Shore News. Retrieved 2023-05-28.
  21. ^ "Sea garden restoration". Gulf Islands National Park Reserve official website. Parks Canada. 2022-06-14. Retrieved 2022-09-09.
  22. ^ Ryan, John (3 September 2022). "Swinomish Tribe builds modern clam garden, reviving practice". Associated Press. Retrieved 3 September 2022.
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