Campaign of the mud

Campaign of the Mud
	Part of Arab–Khazar wars
	; The Darial Gorge
Date	110 AH (728/729CE), or 114 AH (732/733CE) (see Dating)
Location	Dagestan, Lazica, neighboring regions
Result	Arab victory or inconclusive
Belligerents
Umayyad Caliphate	Khazar Khaganate
Commanders and leaders
Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik or; Marwan ibn Muhammad	Khagan of Khazaria
Strength
Unknown (traditionally 40,000)	Unknown
Casualties and losses
Unknown	Unknown

The Campaign of the Mud (Arabic: غزوة الطين, Ghazwat al-Tin) was a military expedition during the Arab–Khazar wars in the 8th century.^[1] Umayyad forces invaded Khazaria and engaged an army commanded personally by the Khagan. Medieval chroniclers gave the campaign its name because the battles were fought under torrential rains that turned the ground into impassable mud.

Dating

There are two historiographical traditions regarding the dating of the campaign. One tradition places it in 728 (110 AH) and associates it with Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, while the other places it in 732 (114 AH) and associates it with Marwan ibn Muhammad. This ambiguity is inherited by modern historiography, where both dates appear depending on the primary sources relied upon by the author.

Campaign of 728

This version appears in early sources, specifically in the works of Khalifa ibn Khayyat and al-Tabari, as well as Ibn al-Athir and Michael the Syrian.

Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, who had repelled a Khazar attack near the Darial Gorge the previous year, launched a preemptive strike.^[2] The Arab army passed through the Darial Gorge into Khazaria and engaged in combat that lasted approximately one month. According to Khalifa ibn Khayyat, the decisive battle between Maslama and the Khagan took place on Thursday, 17 Jumada al-Thani 728 (17 [O.S. 728] September). Khalifa provides two versions of the battle's location, citing different informants: either near Derbent or near the Darial Gorge. According to al-Tabari, the fighting occurred on the Darial side.

Arab authors describe the outcome as successful; the Khagan (whose name is not preserved in the sources) was defeated and fled. However, Michael the Syrian writes the opposite, stating that the Arabs could not achieve victory and fled, abandoning their camp. The campaign was also noted in Byzantine sources, which is rare for these conflicts. Theophanes also reports the flight of the Arabs.^[3]

In any case, the result of the campaign was modest, as it did not significantly alter the balance of power. The Arab army returned via Lazica, passing a location known as the "Mosque of Dhu al-Qarnayn".^[4]^[5] Historian Anatoly Novoseltsev proposed an alternative route along the Caspian Sea coast, assuming the battle took place near Derbent, though this does not account for the arguments favoring the western route.^[6]

Al-Tabari describes the difficult conditions:

Among the events of this year was the campaign of Maslama b. 'Abd al-Malik against the Turks. He marched against them from the direction of the Alan Gates... They fought for nearly a month, suffering from torrential rains. Finally, Allah put the Khagan to flight... Maslama returned. He followed the road through the [city called] 'Temple of Dhu al-Qarnayn'.

— Al-Tabari, History of the Prophets and Kings^[5]

Descriptions in primary sources

Among those [events] which occurred in this [year of the Hijra] was the campaign of [the governor of the North] Maslama ibn 'Abd al-Malik against the Turks. He marched against them from the direction of the Alan Gates until he encountered the Khagan and his hordes. They fought for approximately a month, suffering from torrential rains. As a result, Allah put the Khagan to flight; he fled, and Maslama returned. He followed the path through the [city called] 'Temple of "The Two-Horned"'.

— al-Tabari, History of the Prophets and Kings^[5]

In this year, Maslama ibn 'Abd al-Malik undertook a campaign into the land of the Khazars. This is the campaign that was named the 'Mud Campaign'.
Abu Khalid reported on the authority of Abu Bara' al-Numayri, who said: 'Maslama marched to encounter [the enemy], and met the Khazar tyrant, leading a large gathering, near al-Bab. They fought for many days, and then Allah granted victory [over the enemies]. This occurred on Thursday, the seventh of Jumada al-Thani of the year one hundred and ten.'
Abu Bara' said: "Abdallah ibn Usaid al-Kilabi told me: 'Indeed, Maslama locked the Gate of the Alans. The Khazars met him, engaged in combat with him and [fought] until night became a barrier between them. Maslama kept the [gate] intact.'"
Ibn al-Kalbi said: "Maslama's battle with them lasted nearly a month under heavy rain. Then Allah defeated them."

— Khalifa ibn Khayyat, History^[7]

In that same year, Maslama conducted a campaign against the Turks from the direction of the Gate of the Alans and, encountering the Khagan with his hordes, engaged him in a battle that lasted about a month. Heavy rain overtook them and the Khagan turned to flight and departed, while Maslama returned via the Road of the Two-Horned.

— Ibn al-Athir, The Complete History^[8]

Maslama again invaded the land of the Turks with a large army. There was a 40-day battle. When the Tayyaye [Arabs] saw that they could not defeat the Turks, they abandoned their camp and fled.

— Michael the Syrian, Chronicle^[9]

In this year, Maslama set out on a campaign into the land of the Turks. They engaged in battle with one another, and many fell on both sides. Maslama, becoming afraid, turned to flight and retreated back through the mountains of Khazaria.

— Theophanes the Confessor, Chronographia^[10]

Campaign of 732

This version appears in Ibn A'tham al-Kufi and was borrowed from him by Bal'ami.^[11] Although not explicitly dated in the text, the sequence of events implies the beginning of 114 AH (732 AD).

Following Maslama's departure for Syria, Marwan ibn Muhammad was appointed the new governor of the northern provinces in early March. He immediately inspected the troops and, leading a 40,000-strong army, marched from Derbent to the Khazar city of Balanjar. The city was likely taken, and the Arabs advanced beyond it. The victory is described in standard terms: many enemy warriors were killed, and significant booty in livestock and prisoners was captured.

Regarding military actions on the Khazar front in 732/733, other sources are vague. Khalifa ibn Khayyat mentions that Marwan crossed a "River al-R.mm" (identification is speculative) and reached the lands of the Saqaliba (Slavs).^[12]

Ibn al-Athir stands apart; in his compilation, the campaign involving rain (though the specific term "Campaign of the Mud" is not used) is attributed to Maslama's previous campaign in 113 AH (731–732).^[8]

The specific detail about horse tails being cut off due to the accumulation of mud is found in the Georgian chronicle of Juansher Juansheriani, which describes Marwan's invasion of Lazica and Abkhazia around the same time:^[13]^[14]

But first they cut off the tails of their horses, for it was heavy [for the horses] because of the mud sticking [to the tails].

— Juansher Juansheriani, Life of Vakhtang Gorgasali^[15]

Al-Kufi provides the Arabic account of this etymology:

This campaign is called the 'Mud Campaign' due to the large amount of rain and mud. During this campaign, he [Marwan] ordered the tails of the horses to be cut off. And they were all cut off because of the great mud and dampness.

— Ibn A'tham al-Kufi, Book of Conquests^[16]

Descriptions in primary sources

He says: The Khazars learned that Maslama had departed from them to Syria, and they returned to their country, which had been taken from them, and seized it and settled in it. This became known to Marwan b. Muhammad. He gathered the people, reviewed them, and there were more than 40,000 of them. He led them to Balanjar. Then from Balanjar he went into the land of the Khazars. He began to take captives and kill, slaughtering a multitude of Khazars. He captured children and women, drove away livestock, and returned to the city of al-Bab safely and with booty. This was in winter and very cold weather. This campaign is called the "Mud Campaign" due to the large amount of rain and mud. During this campaign, he ordered the tails of the horses to be cut off. And they were all cut off because of the great mud and dampness.

— Ibn A'tham al-Kufi, Book of Conquests^[16]

The Khazars, learning of Maslama's departure, all returned to their cities. When news of this reached Marwan ben Muhammad, he gathered a force of more than forty thousand, and through Balanjar penetrated into the Khazar land, killed everyone, took herds with him, and returned to the city, where he spent the winter. This campaign is called the "Mud Campaign", due to the multitude of rains that poured throughout the campaign, so that Marwan was forced to order the tails of the horses to be cut off, because the mud stuck to them.

— Bal'ami, History of Tabari^[11]

In this year Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik removed Maslama ibn 'Abd al-Malik from [the governance of] Armenia, Azerbaijan and al-Jazira. In the beginning of Muharram of the year 114, he appointed Marwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan as governor of these countries.
Abu Khalid said on the authority of Abu Bara': "Marwan set out in the year 114 and [advanced] until he crossed the river al-R.mm. He killed, took captives and raided the as-Saqaliba [Slavs]."

— Khalifa ibn Khayyat, History^[12]

Al-Harashi remained in Bagravan until he received an order from Hisham to appear before him, and in his place Hisham appointed his brother Maslama ibn 'Abd al-Malik as governor of Armenia and Azerbaijan. Arriving there, Maslama marched against the Turks under heavy rain (cold?) and traversed the whole country, pursuing them.

— Ibn al-Athir, The Complete History^[17]

For the Hagarene emir, who was called Murvan the Deaf [Marwan], son of Muhammad and whom Eshim [Hisham], the emir al-mu'minin of Baghdad, son of Abd al-Malik of Baghdad, sent [to Kartli]... [...] The Deaf One bypassed all the lands of the Caucasus, seized the Gates of Darial and Derbend and destroyed all the cities and most of the fortresses within Kartli. And finding out that the kings of Kartli with all their kin had gone to Egrisi, and from there hid in Abkhazia, he began to pursue them on their heels and destroyed all the cities and fortresses of the land of Egrisi. [...] Passing Tsikhe-Goji, they set up camp between two adjacent rivers. And a severe rain broke out and the [waters of] the rivers rose immensely: the smaller of the rivers poured onto the Abash troops and drowned thirty-three thousand infantry; the larger of the rivers surged upon the horsemen, whose camp was set up in a wooded area, and some of them scattered in different directions, some saved themselves by climbing trees, and the river took thirty thousand horses and since then one of them has been named Tskhenis-tskali [Horse's water], and the other Abasha. And they moved from there and passed the Gurian road, passed the Speri road, but on their numbers there was no visible decrease. But first they cut off the tails of their horses, for it was heavy [for the horses] because of the mud sticking [to the tails].

— Juansher Juansheriani, Life of Vakhtang Gorgasali^[15]

Notes

^ Dunlop 1954, pp. 68, 80.
^ Shaginyan 2011, pp. 235–236.
^ Shaginyan 2011, p. 236, note.
^ Dunlop 1954, p. 68.
^ ^a ^b ^c Shaginyan 2024.
^ Novoseltsev 1990, p. 235.
^ Beilis 2000, p. 51.
^ ^a ^b Ibn al-Athir 1940, p. 26.
^ Chabot 1901, p. 501.
^ Chichurov 1980, p. 68.
^ ^a ^b Dorn 1844, p. 86.
^ ^a ^b Beilis 2000, p. 42.
^ Shaginyan 2011, pp. 240–241.
^ Novoseltsev 1990, p. 235, Note 149.
^ ^a ^b Juansheriani 1986, p. 104.
^ ^a ^b Garayeva 2006, p. 467.
^ Ibn al-Athir 1940, p. 28.

Sources

Beilis, V. M. (2000). "Сообщения Халифа ибн Хаййата ал-Усфури об арабо-хазарских войнах в VII — первой половине VIII в." [Reports of Khalifa ibn Khayyat al-Usfuri on the Arab-Khazar wars in the 7th – first half of the 8th century]. Drevneyshie gosudarstva na territorii SSSR (in Russian). Moscow.
Chabot, J. B. (1901). Chronique de Michel le Syrien, patriarche jacobite d'Antioche, 1166-1199 [Chronicle of Michael the Syrian, Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch, 1166-1199] (in French). Vol. 2. Paris.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Chichurov, I. S. (1980). Византийские исторические сочинения: «Хронография» Феофана, «Бревиарий» Никифора. Тексты, перевод, комментарий [Byzantine Historical Works: "Chronographia" of Theophanes, "Breviarium" of Nikephoros. Texts, translation, commentary] (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka.
Dorn, B. A. (1844). "Известия о хазарах восточного историка Табари..." [News about the Khazars by the eastern historian Tabari...]. Zhurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya (in Russian) (8): 1–86.
Dunlop, D. M. (1954). The History of the Jewish Khazars. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. OCLC 459245222.
Garayeva, N. G. (2006). История татар с древнейших времён [History of the Tatars from Ancient Times] (in Russian). Vol. 2. Kazan: Rukhiyat. ISBN 5-903099-01-7.
Ibn al-Athir (1940). Материалы по истории Азербайджана из Тарих-ал-камиль (полного свода истории) Ибн-ал-Асира [Materials on the history of Azerbaijan from Tarikh-al-kamil (Complete Collection of History) by Ibn-al-Athir] (in Russian). Translated by P. K. Zhuze. Baku: AzFAN.
Juansheriani, Juansher (1986). Жизнь Вахтанга Горгасала [Life of Vakhtang Gorgasali] (in Russian). Translated by G. V. Tsulaya. Tbilisi: Metsniereba.
Novoseltsev, A. P. (1990). Хазарское государство и его роль в истории Восточной Европы и Кавказа [The Khazar State and its Role in the History of Eastern Europe and the Caucasus] (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka. ISBN 5-02-009552-4.
Shaginyan, A. K. (2011). Армения и страны Южного Кавказа в условиях византийско-иранской и арабской власти [Armenia and the Countries of the South Caucasus under Byzantine-Iranian and Arab Rule] (in Russian). St. Petersburg: Aletheia. ISBN 978-5-91419-573-8.
Shaginyan, A. K. (2024). "Narratives of the "Father of Muslim Historiography" al-Tabari (839–923) about the Arab-Khazar Wars in the Caucasus". Vostok (Oriens) (in Russian) (5).

[FOOTNOTEDunlop195468,_80-1] Dunlop 1954, pp. 68, 80.

[FOOTNOTEShaginyan2011235–236-2] Shaginyan 2011, pp. 235–236.

[FOOTNOTEShaginyan2011236-3] Shaginyan 2011, p. 236, note.

[FOOTNOTEDunlop195468-4] Dunlop 1954, p. 68.

[FOOTNOTEShaginyan2024-5] Shaginyan 2024.

[FOOTNOTENovoseltsev1990235-6] Novoseltsev 1990, p. 235.

[FOOTNOTEBeilis200051-7] Beilis 2000, p. 51.

[FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Athir194026-8] Ibn al-Athir 1940, p. 26.

[FOOTNOTEChabot1901501-9] Chabot 1901, p. 501.

[FOOTNOTEChichurov198068-10] Chichurov 1980, p. 68.

[FOOTNOTEDorn184486-11] Dorn 1844, p. 86.

[FOOTNOTEBeilis200042-12] Beilis 2000, p. 42.

[FOOTNOTEShaginyan2011240–241-13] Shaginyan 2011, pp. 240–241.

[FOOTNOTENovoseltsev1990235Note_149-14] Novoseltsev 1990, p. 235, Note 149.

[FOOTNOTEJuansheriani1986104-15] Juansheriani 1986, p. 104.

[FOOTNOTEGarayeva2006467-16] Garayeva 2006, p. 467.

[FOOTNOTEIbn_al-Athir194028-17] Ibn al-Athir 1940, p. 28.

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Dating

Campaign of 728

Campaign of 732

See also

Notes

Sources