Persian revolts against the Rashidun Caliphate

Persian revolts against the Rashidun Caliphate
Part of The Aftermath of the Muslim conquest of Persia and the First Fitna
Istakhr
Izeh
Nishapur
Fasa
Darabgard
Zaliq
Kerman
Merv
Herat
Khuzestan
Zaranj
Tammisha
Ramjerdi
Shahpur
Kazerun
Hamadan
Ray
Persian revolts against the Rashidun Caliphate (Iran)

Rebellious Cities
Sites of Battle

Map depicting the sites of rebellions against the Rashidun authority in Early Mediaeval Iran and it's surrounding regions
Date646–661 CE
Location
Iran during the Caliphate (modern Iran, Iraq, and surrounding regions)
Result Rashidun victory
Territorial
changes		 Rashidun Caliphate consolidates control over former Sasanian territories
Belligerents
Rashidun Caliphate
Supported by:
Dehqans of Persia
Pro-Arab Persian nobility		 Sasanian loyalists
Qarinvand dynasty
Kurdish tribes of Izeh
Supported by:
Hephthalites
Nezak Huns
Commanders and leaders

Uthman ibn Affan
Ali ibn Abi Talib
Abu Musa al-Ash'ari
Abd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami
Abd Allah ibn Amir
Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas
Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura
Abd Allah ibn Abbas
Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi
Ziyad ibn Abihi
Sa'id ibn al-As
Hasan ibn Ali
Husayn ibn Ali
Ja'dah ibn Hubayrah
Khulayd ibn Qurrah
Umayr ibn Ahmar
Rib'ī ibn Ka's al-'Anbarī
Abd Allah ibn Ma'mar X
Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar †
Abd al-Rahman ibn Juru al-Ta’i †

Persian nobility:
Barāz ibn Māhrūya
Māhawayh (After 656)		 Yazdegerd III X
Mahak
Qarin †
Rebel leader in Khuzestan †
Māhawayh (Until 656)
Hasaka ibn Attab al-Habati †
Imran ibn al-Fudayl al-Barjami
Several other unorganised rebels
Strength
20,000–40,000 Qarinids & Hephthalites:
40,000 Rebels
Casualties and losses
Unknown; likely light, with some soldiers killed or wounded Unknown; Extremely Higher , with high rebel and civilian casualities
Widespread civilian casualities primarily in Istakhr and Merv with Arabic narrations and secondary sources estimating about 1,40,000+[1][2] civilian casualities in Istakhr particularly during the Caliphate of Uthman

The Persian revolts against the Rashidun Caliphate were a series of uprisings and insurgencies across former Sasanian territories between 650 and 661 CE. Following the initial Muslim conquest of Persia, these rebellions represented a major challenge to the consolidation of Rashidun control over the territories of the former Sasanian Empire. The unrest was primarily driven by the marginalization of the Persian elite and economic discontent regarding the imposition of taxes such as the Jizya and Kharaj.

The revolts intensified during the reigns of Caliphs Uthman and Ali, particularly in provinces such as Fars, Khorasan, Kerman, and Tabaristan. In cities like Istakhr, the rebellions were frequent and often required multiple military expeditions to suppress. Local Zoroastrian populations and remnants of the Sasanian army occasionally coordinated these efforts, at times providing support to the last Sasanian emperor, Yazdegerd III.

Internal instability during the First Fitna provided further opportunities for regional revolts. However, Arab commanders, including Abd Allah ibn Amir and Ziyad ibn Abihi. eventually re-established Rashidun control through a series of decisive campaigns.These conflicts resulted in significant casualties and paved the way for the stabilization of the region under the succeeding Umayyad Caliphate.

Background

Main article: Muslim conquest of Persia
See also: Battle of Nahavand

The Persians revolted against the early Muslim caliphs due to several factors including cultural, religious, and economic discontents. After the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab conquests, Persian culture experienced a severe setback. Much of the population viewed the Arab rule as a foreign occupation over the indigenous institutions and an imposition of non-indigenous government structures. Arabic became the language of administration with Persian elites losing their power over the state which led to further cultural conflicts.

Socio-economic conflicts

Main article: Islamization of Iran

The followers of Zoroastrianism found themselves increasingly discriminated and marginalised. Initially the Arabs considered them to be the People of the Book, however due to high taxation and restrictions over the years widespread discontent in the region. The destruction of fire temples and religious customs further made Arab rule unpopular among the population.[3] Economically, many Persians suffered under the taxation of the Jizya and Kharaj, particularly under corrupt governors. This became an important factor for several revolts throughout the region, like the Tabaristan uprising and other localized resistance to Arab rule.[4]

Islamic sources recognise the Persian resistance faced during its conquest. The Isfahan province held a rebellion after its initial submission, requiring renewed military efforts to re-establish Arab control over it.[5] Moreover, the nobility and common people in various regions like Khorasan and Fars offered resistance to Caliph Uthman's reign, resulting in multiple military responses to suppress the rebels.[6]

Rebellions against Uthman

Early Rebellions in Shahpur & Kazerun

The rebellions in Persian regions broke out significantly due to the instability caused by the changing of governors of Basra and Kufa or in the early days of a new caliph. Similiarly, after the murder of Umar Ibn al Khattab, the cities of Shahpur and Kazerun rose in revolt.[7]

Rebellions in Ray & Hamdan

In the early years of the Caliphate of Uthman , during the second instigation of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas as the governor of Kufa , the cities of Hamdan and Ray rose in revolt against the Arabs. Sa'd sent Ala ibn Wahab to suppress the revolt in Hamadan. Ray was suppressed by Qarza ibn Ka'b Ansari [8] and made to pay the taxes of kharaj and jizya. The peace made with the nobility of the city in 646 failed to last long.[9]

Azerbaijan Insurrection

In 646, during the governorship of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, the people of Azerbaijan region held a insurrection against the Arabs. Sa'd responded by invading Mughan , Talish and sent raiding campaigns upto Armenia.[10]

Istakhr Rebellions

Istakhr Rebellion (650)

At the instigation of Yazdegerd III, the people of Fars rose in revolt.[11] Abdallah ibn Ma'mar al-Tamimi, an Arab governor, was killed by Persian rebels in Istakhr. The rebels then invited Yazdegerd III to the city while he was en route to Khorasan. In response, Abd Allah ibn Amir, an Arab general and governor of Basra, established himself as governor of Fars on behalf of the Caliphate to restore order. Meanwhile, an Iranian general named Mahak captured Darabgerd from the Arabs. After ibn Amir managed to conquer Jūr, he then returned to suppress the rebellion of Istakhr after the people of Istakhr broke the treaty between them and the Arabs. Ibn Amir subsequently surrounded the city with his Basran cavalry. After fierce fighting and bombarding the city by using a Manjānīq, the rebellion was suppressed and 40,000 Persians were killed, including members from noble houses and Aswaran commanders who had taken refuge in Istakhr.[12][13]

Istakhr Rebellion (653)

In 653, a revolt broke out in Istakhr during the reign of Caliph Uthman following refusal of paying the Jizya. Abd Allah ibn Abbas was sent to crush the rebellion, and the rebellion was suppressed.[14] Abd Allah ibn Amir and Ubaydullah ibn Ma'mar al–Taymi as his vanguard set out for Istakhr. The Persians confronted Ubaydullah at Ramjird and killed him. He was buried in a garden of the town. Ibn Amir hurried organised his army upon learning of the event and laid siege to Istakhr. He appointed Abu Barza Nadla ibn Abd Allah al–Aslami in his right wing, Ma'qil ibn Yasar al–Mazani in his left wing, Imran ibn al–Husayn al–Khuzā'ī was given the charge of the cavalry and Muhammad ibn Mu'ammar al–Dhuhli in charge of infantry. They fought the rebels of Istakhar, routed them, and killed 100,000. Ibn Amir then recaptured Darabjird and headed for Kerman.[15]

Kurdish Rebellion in Izeh

A rebellion organised by the Kurds broke out in Idha (modern-day Izeh) during the reign of the Caliphate of Uthman. Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, the governor of Basra, called for war against the rebels however failed to gain popular support for the campaign. Upon the Basrans' request to remove Abu Musa from his office, Uthman dismissed him and appointed Abd Allah ibn Amir as his replacement.[16][17]

Conflict in Tabaristan

After the assassination of Umar, several regions in Iran rose in revolt. A Muslim force under Suwyd ibn-Muqran launched an military assault on Amol. The governor agreed to pay the Muslims tribute after receiving the guarantee of no further military assault on the town by the Muslims. However , the population of Amol refused to pay the tributes , triggering a Muslim attack on the city through Gorgan by Sa'd ibn As to force Amol for paying tribute. The attack triggered widespread revolts in Tabaristan against the Caliphate authorities. [18]

Sa'id ibn al-As along with Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali launched an expedition to Tabaristan. He besieged Abrashahr before camping at Qumis. He later arrived in Tamisah, where he subsequently captured the fort of Tamisah. Sa'id also captured the Namiyah desert.[19][20]

Revolts of Darabgard and Fasa & Campaigns to the East

Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi was sent to carry out military campaigns in the Sistan region which was captured during the reign of the Caliph Umar but rose in revolt under Uthman. Darabgard and Fasa revolted but was suppressed.[21] The first conflict took place in Zaliq during a Persian festival. The Muslims emerged victorious and the Persians sought peace. The Arab Muslim army captured Qarquqya without any resistance, then launched military expeditions in the regions of Afghanistan.[22]

Uprising in Zaranj

Two years later after ibn Ziyad's campaign, the people of Zaranj rose up against the Arab lieutenant and expelled him. Abd Allah ibn Amir sent Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura who recaptured Zaranj and made new territorial gains in the regions of Bust and Zabul.[23]

Kerman Revolt (651–652)

Kerman also rebelled in 651-652, but the revolt was suppressed by Abd Allah ibn Amir. The Arab forces searched the entire province and moved southwards towards Hormuz. The Persian refugees in Kerman scattered in all directions as a result of the conflict.[24]

Merv Rebellion

When Uthman sent Umayr bin Ahmar, Abd Allah ibn Amir encamped near Merv. During the winter season, the people of Merv agreed on the entrance of ibn Amir into the city. The Dehqan feared that Umayr and his troops would perish in the cold, hence they gave them shelters in their own houses. They later regretted the decision and planned an attack against Umayr. The military leader and Dehqan of the town, Baraz ibn Māhrūya immediately informed Umayr of the planned attack on them. The urban rowdies and market traders of the town carried out the attack.[25] On learning that the people of Merv were planning a revolt against them, Abd Allah ibn Amir suppressed the civilians in the city. Uthman rebuked Abdullah ibn Amr for his actions.[26][27]

Insurrection of Qarin/Karen

After the campaign of Ibn Amir in the frontier of the Oxus river, there was a mere small number of caliphal armed presence in the regions of Merv, Nishapur, and Zaranj. After Ibn Amir left with most of his troops, an Iranian notable named Qarin raised an insurrection in Quhistan and began collecting forty thousand recruits from Herat ,Tabasain, and Badgihas. [28] The insurrection took place during the last years of Uthman's reign. The Arabs were driven out of Nishapur and Zaranj, while the Nezak Huns captured Balkh. The Arabs stationed at Merv held the siege until Ibn Khazim was sent by Ibn Amir to suppress the revolt.[29] Ibn Khazim set out with 4000 troops to confront Qarin.[30] Qarin and many of his supporters were killed and the insurrection was suppressed.[31] These regions were the Hephthalite dominated areas of Herat, which further indicates towards a Qarinvand - Hephthalite alliance. Ibn Amir played an important role in responding to the revolt which occurred during the assassination of Uthman. Ibn Khazim attacked the rebels during night and defeated them. Mutual co-operation between the Parthian nobility and the Hephthalites were seen throughout the Sasaninan frontier. The Hephthalites launched raids around Murghab. The alliance between the Māhawayh, Nezaks, Qarinids, and Hephthalites to resist the Arabs were a brief continuation of the traditional strategy which was followed during the Sasassinan times. [32]

Rebellions against Ali

Uprising in Istakhr (660)

Some Persians rebelled due to discontent from the Arab conquests and internal instability within the early Muslim state. Many Persian Muslims felt isolated by the tribal bias of the Arab elite and the limited number of non-Arabs into the political body of the caliphate.[33] Moreover, the instability caused during the First Muslim Civil War by Caliph Ali's conflict with the long-time governor of Greater Syria, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, provided the opportunity for Persian rebels to revolt, especially in regions like Khorasan where loyalty to the Sasanian legacy was strong.[34] After the Arab conquest of Persia, the city of Istakhr remained as the capital of resistance against the newly established Islamic administration. The city strongly held to the Sasanian legacy which became a crucial subject for the rebels who fought to reclaim the loss of Persian nobility and sought to restore the imperial rule of the Persian nobility. During Caliph Ali's reign, this resistance had emerged into a greater uprising, primarily in the regions where Persian clergy opposed the centralised power of the Arabs, which they viewed as a threat to their heritage. Ziyad ibn Abihi was tasked with suppressing the rebellion of the city.[35]

Kerman Revolt

After the people of Fars rebelled, a revolt also broke out in Kerman with the refusal of paying the Kharaj. Caliph Ali sent Ziyad with 4000 troops who suppressed their revolt.[36][37]

Khorasan Revolt

Khorasan also rebelled against Ali, who sent Ja'da ibn Hubayrah to suppress the uprising. Hubayrah went as far as Abarshahr to encounter the Non-Muslim rebels. The rebels refused to surrender and Hubayrah returned to Ali.[38]

Establishment of Authority over Merv

Ali gave the governorship of Khorasan to Ja'da ibn Hubayrah after establishing his caliphate. Ali in a letter to Barāz ibn Māhūya, the dehqan of Merv, to handover the Kharaj to Ja'da ibn Hubayrah. Ja'da arrived in Merv where Barāz wrote a letter to all the other dehqans, enjoining him in offering their obedience to Ja'da. Likewise his son Abdullah, Ja'da conducted several campaigns in Merv. [39]

In 661, a letter from Ali to Māhawayh asserted Māhawayh's position as Marzban and that Ali's authority was recognised over the Persians.[40]

Uprising in Nishapur

Amidst the crisis of the First Fitna during the years of 656-657, due to the uprisings in Khorasan and Tokharistan, Arabs had lost control of Nishapur. In 658, Ali sent Khulayd bin Qurrah for restoring control over Nishapur. Khulayd besieged Nishapur and Marv until the rebels vowed peace. Khulayd took with him maids of royal blood who wished to marry Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali which was refused by Ali.[41][42][43]

Khuzestan Revolt

Persian Muslims and Christians participated in the revolt in Khuzestan against Ali, however it was foiled and their leader was killed.[37]

Expeditions in the Balochistan Region

Ali also sent expeditions deeper into the Eastern provinces of the Caliphate, including his consolidation of control over Zaranj and several raids against bandits and rebels in Balochistan.[44][45][46]

Zaranj Revolt

After the assassination of the third Rashidun caliph Uthman ibn Affan, the rebels in Zaranj under Hasaka ibn Attab al-Habati and Imran ibn al-Fudayl revolted and expelled Uthman's governor of the region.[47] Ali ibn Abi Talib, the next Rashidun caliph, sent Abd al-Rahman ibn Juru al-Ta’i who was killed by Hasaka. Ali then wrote to Abd Allah ibn Abbas to send 40,000 men to Sistan. Ibn Abbas sent Rab’i bin al-Ka's al-Anbari with 4,000 troops to take control of Zaranj. When Rab'i reached the city, Imran and Hasaka fought fiercely with Rab'i where Hasaka was killed and Rab'i captured the city.[48][49]

Aftermath

Eastern Iran was reconquered by the first Umayyad caliph Mu'awiya I after he emerged victorious at the end of the First Fitna and established the Umayyad dynasty. He sent numerous campaigns under Basran forces to collect tribute across the region.[50][51]

See also

References

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