Arsenosugar
Arsenosugars, also known as arsenic-containing ribofuranosides, are a class of organoarsenic compound and ribose derivative predominantly found in algae, seaweed and marine animals.[1]
Structure
There are several types of arsenosugar with the main ones being: oxo-, where an oxygen is double bonded to the arsenic; thio-, where a sulfur double bonds to the arsenic; and methyl-arsenosugars, where the arsenic atom is bonded to 2 or 3 methyl groups. The R-group represents an organic group with common ones being glycerol, sulfate, sulfonate and phosphate. There are a total of over 70 known arsenosugars with a known structure.[2]
Occurrence and production
Arsenosugars were first isolated and identified in 1981 from Ecklonia radiata and are found predominantly in marine organisms.[3] Arsenosugars are produced by some algae and bacteria, such as Synechocystis and Chlorella vulgaris[4] which can convert inorganic arsenic, such as arsenite ions, into various organo-arsenic compounds including methlyarsenous acid and dimethylarsinous acid which then get converted to arsenosugars. These arsenosugars may then further be converted into arsenolipids.[3]
Toxicity
Compared to many other organo-arsenic compounds, but similar to arsenobetaine, arsenosugars are generally non-toxic and pose less of a health concern to humans.[5] However, some possible products of metabolism can be toxic, however, little research has been performed into their exact toxicities.[6]
References
- ^ Morales-Rodríguez, Alba; Sahuquillo, Àngels; Minguillón, Cristina; López-Sánchez, José Fermín; Barrón, Dolores (August 1, 2024). "Arsenosugar extracted from algae: Assessment of countercurrent chromatography for isolation". Analytica Chimica Acta. 1315 342814. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2024.342814. ISSN 0003-2670.
- ^ Stonik, Valentin A.; Stonik, Inna V. (July 28, 2023). "Carbohydrate-Containing Low Molecular Weight Metabolites of Microalgae". Marine Drugs. 21 (8): 427. doi:10.3390/md21080427. ISSN 1660-3397. PMC 10456119. PMID 37623708.
- ^ a b Xue, Xi-Mei; Ye, Jun; Raber, Georg; Rosen, Barry P.; Francesconi, Kevin; Xiong, Chan; Zhu, Zhe; Rensing, Christopher; Zhu, Yong-Guan (January 15, 2019). "Identification of Steps in the Pathway of Arsenosugar Biosynthesis". Environmental Science & Technology. 53 (2): 634–641. doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b04389. ISSN 0013-936X. PMC 6467767. PMID 30525501.
- ^ Murray, Linda A.; Raab, Andrea; Marr, Iain L.; Feldmann, Jörg (September 2003). "Biotransformation of arsenate to arsenosugars by Chlorella vulgaris". Applied Organometallic Chemistry. 17 (9): 669–674. doi:10.1002/aoc.498. ISSN 0268-2605.
- ^ EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM); Knutsen, Helle Katrine; Åkesson, Agneta; Bampidis, Vasileios; Bignami, Margherita; Bodin, Laurent; Chipman, James Kevin; Degen, Gisela; Hernández‐Jerez, Antonio; Hofer, Tim; Hogstrand, Christer; Landi, Stefano; Leblanc, Jean‐Charles; Machera, Kyriaki; Ntzani, Evangelia (December 2024). "Risk assessment of complex organoarsenic species in food". EFSA Journal. 22 (12). doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2024.9112. PMC 11626214. PMID 39655151.
- ^ Leffers, Larissa; Ebert, Franziska; Taleshi, Mojtaba S.; Francesconi, Kevin A.; Schwerdtle, Tanja (2013-07-08). "In vitro toxicological characterization of two arsenosugars and their metabolites". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 57 (7): 1270–1282. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201200821. ISSN 1613-4133. PMC 3739928. PMID 23564523.