Amalthea (mythology)

This article is about the mythological figure. For other uses, see Amalthea.

In Greek mythology, Amalthea or Amaltheia (Ancient Greek: Ἀμάλθεια) is the figure most commonly identified as the nurse of Zeus during his infancy. She is described either as a nymph who raises the child on the milk of a goat, or, in some accounts from the Hellenistic period (c. 323–30 BC) onwards, as the goat itself.

As early as the 6th century BC, there are references to the "horn of Amalthea" (known in Latin as the cornucopia), a magical horn said to be capable of producing endless amounts of any food or drink desired. In a narrative attributed to the mythical poet Musaeus and dating to around the 4th century BC, Amalthea, a nymph, nurses the infant Zeus and owns a goat which is terrifying in appearance. After Zeus reaches adulthood, he uses the goat's skin as a weapon in his battle against the Titans (the earlier generation of gods). The first known author to describe Amalthea as a goat is the 3rd-century BC poet Callimachus, who presents a rationalised version of the myth in which Zeus is fed on Amalthea's milk. Aratus, also writing in the 3rd century BC, identifies Amalthea with the star Capella, and describes her as "Olenian" (the meaning of which is unclear).

There is disagreement among scholars as to when the tale of Zeus's upbringing was first merged with that of the magical horn. They are explicitly combined by the Roman poet Ovid (1st century BC/AD), whose story of Zeus's nursing weaves together elements from multiple accounts. A passage from a scholium on Aratus's version (that is, a marginal note in one of the text's manuscripts) has been taken as evidence that the two myths may have been connected prior to Ovid. In the 2nd-century AD Fabulae, Amalthea hides the infant in a tree and gathers the Kouretes to dance noisily, so that the child's crying cannot be heard. Other accounts of Zeus's upbringing describe Amalthea as related to Melisseus, the king of Crete, including an Orphic version of the story.

Among the few surviving representations of Amalthea in ancient art are a 2nd-century AD marble relief, which depicts her as a goat suckling Zeus, behind two dancing Kouretes, and multiple coins and medallions from the Roman Empire. In modern art, she has been the subject of 17th- and 18th-century works by sculptors such as Gian Lorenzo Bernini and Pierre Julien, and painters such as Jacob Jordaens.

Etymology and origins

The etymology of Amáltheia (Ἀμάλθεια) is unknown.[2] Scholars from the 19th century made various proposals, among them derivations from álthō, althaínō (ἄλθω, ἀλθαίνω, 'to tend, to nourish') and amalḕ theía (ἀμαλὴ θεία, 'divine goat').[3] In 1917, Alfred Chilton Pearson described earlier etymologies as inadequate, suggesting that the name is related to amalós (ἀμαλός, 'soft, tender, weak') and amálē (ἀμάλη, 'sheaf, bundle').[4] The verb amaltheúein (ἀμαλθεύειν, 'to nurture')[5] was thought by Otto Gruppe, writing in 1906, to derive from Amalthea's name. According to Pearson, Gruppe's theory was refuted by the discovery of amaltheúein, previously attested only in later sources, in a fragment from the writings of the 5th-century BC tragedian Sophocles.[6] Pearson believed that the two words should instead be understood as having existed alongside each other, with this notion of "abundance" being embodied in certain mythological figures.[7] In 1999, Gerard Mussies derived Amalthea's name from amalthḗs (ἀμαλθής, 'not softening'), which he saw as referring to the goat's udder, taut with milk.[8]

There is no mention of Amalthea in Hesiod's Theogony,[9] an 8th-century BC poem containing the earliest known account of Zeus's birth.[10] Hesiod writes that the newborn Zeus is taken to a cave on "the Aegean mountain" on the island of Crete,[11] which some scholars interpret as "Goat's Mountain", and thus as related to the story of Amalthea.[12] Other scholars, including Martin Litchfield West, see no reason to view the name for the mountain as referring to a goat.[13] According to Apostolos Athanassakis, elements of the story of Zeus's raising such as Amalthea and the Kouretes (male figures who dance loudly around the child in some versions) have their origins in Cretan traditions.[14]

Mythology

Horn of Amalthea

The "horn of Amalthea", referred to in Latin literature as the cornucopia,[16] is a magical horn generally described as being able to produce an inexhaustible supply of any food or drink desired.[17] The tale of this horn seems to have originated as an independent tradition from that of Zeus's raising, though it is uncertain when the two merged.[18] The "horn of Amalthea" is mentioned as early as the 6th century BC by poets such as Anacreon and Phocylides,[19] and is commonly referenced in comedies, such as those by Cratinus, Aristophanes, and Antiphanes (who date to the 5th or 4th century BC).[20] According to the Bibliotheca of Apollodorus, the 5th-century BC mythographer Pherecydes described the horn's ability to provide endless food and drink as desired, and considered it to belong to the nymph Amalthea.[21] In a lost poem by the 5th-century BC poet Pindar, Heracles fought against the river god Achelous (who was in the form of a bull) for the hand of Deianeira, and during the fight Heracles pulled off one of his opponent's horns. Achelous reclaimed this horn from Heracles by trading it for a magical horn obtained from Amalthea, a daughter of Oceanus.[22] In the same passage in which he cites Pherecydes, Apollodorus (1st or 2nd century AD) retells this story, and describes the nymph Amalthea as the daughter of Haemonius, whose name, meaning "Thessalian", indicates that she is separate to the nurse of Zeus.[23] In Apollodorus's account, Amalthea's horn is that of a bull (an element also mentioned by the 4th-to-3rd-century BC comic poet Philemon),[24] seemingly a result of confusion with the bull's horn of Achelous.[25] In the versions of the myth told by Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) and Strabo (1st century BC/AD), the horn of Amalthea is identified with that of Achelous.[26]

Nurse of Zeus

In stories of Zeus's infancy, Amalthea is the figure most often described as his nurse,[27] and in this role she is often considered a nymph.[28] She appeared in the account of Zeus's upbringing from the now-lost Eumolpia, probably composed in or before the second half of the 4th century BC, and attributed in antiquity to the mythical poet Musaeus.[29] This account is described in a summary of the Catasterismi, a now-lost work of astral mythology attributed to the 3rd-to-2nd-century BC scholar Eratosthenes; "Pseudo-Eratosthenes" is the name given to the author of this summary.[30] According to Pseudo-Eratosthenes, in the version by Musaeus, Zeus's mother Rhea gives him as a newborn to the goddess Themis; he is then handed over to the nymph Amalthea, who has the infant reared by a she-goat.[31] This goat is the offspring of the god Helios, and is so terrifying in appearance that, out of fear, the Titans (the gods from the generation before Zeus) had asked that Gaia, their mother, secrete her away to a Cretan cave; Gaia complied, entrusting the goat to Amalthea.[32] After Zeus reaches adulthood, he receives an oracle advising him to use the goat's skin as a weapon in his war against the Titans, because of its terrifying nature.[33] The narrative from Musaeus is also recounted in De astronomia,[34] a work of astral mythology probably composed in the 2nd century AD;[35] it specifies that the weapon Zeus uses against the Titans is the aegis.[36]

Various accounts of Zeus's upbringing rationalise Amalthea as a goat;[37] these versions start appearing in the Hellenistic period (c. 323–30 BC).[38] The earliest known author to describe her as a goat is the 3rd-century BC poet Callimachus, in his Hymn to Zeus.[39] He relates that, after Zeus's birth, the god is taken by the Arcadian nymph Neda to a hidden location in Crete, where he is reared by the nymph Adrasteia and fed the milk of Amalthea.[40] In his description of Zeus's suckling of the breast of Amalthea, Callimachus employs the word mazón (μαζόν), which suggests the breast of a human rather than the teat of a goat; in doing so, Susan Stephens writes that Callimachus "calls attention to his own rationalizing variant of the myth".[41] According to a scholium on Callimachus's account (that is, a marginal note in a manuscript of his text), from one of Amalthea's horns flows ambrosia and from the other comes nectar (two foods of the gods).[42] In the version of Zeus's infancy from Diodorus Siculus, the child is reared by nymphs on the milk of the goat Amalthea, as well as honey;[43] Diodorus Siculus adds that Amalthea is the source of Zeus's epithet aigíokhos (αἰγίοχος, 'aegis-bearing').[44] An account which is largely the same as that given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes is found in a scholium on the Iliad, though the scholiast (the scholium's author) describes Amalthea herself as the goat which terrifies the Titans.[45]

In works of astral mythology, the tale of the goat who nurses the young Zeus is adapted to provide an aition (or origin myth) for certain stars.[46] The 3rd-century BC poet Aratus, in his description of the constellation of the Charioteer (Auriga), explains that the star of the Goat (Capella) sits on the Charioteer's left shoulder.[47] He identifies this goat with Amalthea,[48] describing it as the goat who suckled Zeus;[49] in this passage, he employs the word mazón for the goat's breast, similarly to Callimachus,[50] who may be his source for this information.[51] He also refers to her as the "Olenian" goat, which may be an allusion to a version in which Zeus is reared (by a goat) near the Achaean city of Olenos, or to the location of the star on the arm (ōlénē, ὠλένη) of the Charioteer.[52] Alternatively, it may indicate that the goat's father is Olenus (the son of Hephaestus),[53] an interpretation given by a scholium on the passage.[54] At the end of the account given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes, the text contains a lacuna (or gap), where he would have described Zeus as placing the goat among the stars;[55] in the Catasterismi, the god would have performed this action for her role in his defeat of the Titans, and her nursing of him during his youth.[56]

Merging of traditions

According to Robert Fowler, the nursing of Zeus by a goat and the originally independent tradition of the magical horn had become "entangled" by the time of Pherecydes.[57] Jan N. Bremmer writes that the Roman poet Ovid (active around the beginning of the 1st century AD) was the first to bring the two tales together.[37] In Ovid's account, presented in his Fasti,[58] Amalthea is once again the goat's owner,[59] and is a naiad (or water nymph) who lives on Mount Ida.[60] She hides the young Zeus in Crete (away from his father, Cronus), where he is suckled by the she-goat.[61] On one occasion, the goat snaps off one of its horns on a tree, and Amalthea, filling the broken horn with fruit, brings it back to Zeus;[62] this tale, an aition for the cornucopia, appears to be the earliest attempt at providing an origin for the object.[33] Zeus later places the goat (and perhaps her broken-off horn) in the heavens, the goat becoming the star Capella.[63] Ovid's narrative brings together elements from multiple earlier accounts, which he intertwines in an episode characterised by John F. Miller as a "miniature masterpiece".[64] His source for the narrative's overall outline appears to be Eratosthenes: he describes Amalthea as a nymph,[65] and seemingly alludes to Zeus's war with the Titans.[66] He notably departs from the Eratosthenic story by describing the goat as 'beautiful' (formosa) and as having majestic horns.[67] Ovid harks back to Aratus's account in the first words of his narrative, which mirror the opening phrase of the Aratean story,[68] and by describing the goat as "Olenian".[69] Barbara Boyd also sees in Ovid's narrative considerable influence from the Callimachean account of Zeus's infancy.[70]

Miller points to a garbled scholium on the account by Aratus as evidence that the story of Zeus's upbringing and that of Amalthea's magical horn may have already been connected by the time of Ovid.[71] The scholiast, who appears to mix two versions – one in which Zeus's nurse is an Arcadian woman and another in which she is a goat – describes the horn of this nurse as Amalthea's horn, which he associates with the constellation of the Goat; Amalthea's horn would seem here to be the magical horn of plenty, though the two are not explicitly identified.[72] Miller also points, as possible further evidence of a tradition in which the two tales were connected, to the scholium on Callimachus, whose mention of ambrosia and nectar flowing from the goat's horns may have been related to the young Zeus's nourishment.[73]

Later versions

An account of Zeus's infancy appears in the Fabulae, a mythological handbook which has been attributed to Gaius Julius Hyginus and was probably composed in the 2nd century AD.[75] In this version, unlike in Hesiod's Theogony,[76] Zeus's elder siblings (or some of them) are not swallowed, though Rhea still gives Cronus a stone in place of Zeus, which he consumes.[77] Upon realising the deception, Cronus scours the earth for his son, while his sister Hera carries the infant to Crete, where she entrusts him to Amalthea,[78] a nymph in this account.[79] To keep Zeus from his father, Amalthea hides him in a cradle, which she places in a tree, such that he "could not be found in the sky, on earth, or on the sea".[80] To prevent Cronus from hearing the cries of the young child, Amalthea brings together the Kouretes and hands them shields and spears, which she instructs them to clang noisily around where the child lies.[81] According to Martin Nilsson, this account is not fully a creation of the poet, and probably has some basis in a connection between the young Zeus and tree worship.[82] Later in the work, Hyginus mentions Althaea,[83] who has been interpreted as Amalthea;[84] he calls this figure one of the daughters of Ocean (that is, the Titan Oceanus),[85] alongside Adrasteia and Ida.[86] He adds that these three are alternatively considered daughters of Melisseus, the king of Crete, and nurses of Zeus.[87]

Other versions of Zeus's upbringing also describe Amalthea as related to Melisseus.[88] In the account given by the late-1st-century BC writer Didymus, the infant Zeus is raised by the nymphs Amalthea and Melissa, the daughters of Melisseus, who feed him honey and the milk of a goat.[89] In Apollodorus's version of Zeus's infancy, the god is born in a cave on Cretan Mount Dicte, where he is fed the milk of Amalthea; he is raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, the daughters of Melisseus, and protected by the Kouretes, who noisily clang their spears and shields.[90]

Amalthea also seems to have appeared in the now-lost Orphic Rhapsodies, a 1st-century BC or 1st-century AD theogonic poem attributed to the mythical poet Orpheus in antiquity.[91] In the poem, Luc Brisson and West believe that Amalthea was the wife of Melisseus (a detail transmitted by the 5th-century AD Neoplatonist philosopher Hermias)[92] and that her daughters by him, the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, raised Zeus in the cave of the goddess Night, while the Kouretes guarded its entrance.[93] According to the reconstruction of the poem by Alberto Bernabé, Zeus was raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida (still the daughters of Melisseus), and fed the milk of Amalthea, whom Bernabé describes as a "goat-nymph".[94] An Orphic work may have been the source for the version of Zeus's upbringing told by Apollodorus.[95]

Diodorus Siculus, in a euhemerist reworking of Amalthea's myth,[96] describes her as an especially beautiful young woman, who is wed to Ammon, the king of Libya. Ammon gives her a region of great fertility which is shaped like a bull's horn, and which, taking its name from her, comes to be known as Amalthea's horn.[97] In this version, Amalthea and Ammon are also the parents of the god Dionysus.[98] According to the 2nd-century AD Greek writer Zenobius, when Zeus places the goat from his childhood among the stars, he sets aside one of her horns, which he gives to the nymphs who raised him, imbuing it with its magical abilities.[99] De astronomia, which presents an account of the goat Amalthea's nursing of Jupiter (the name of Zeus in Latin literature),[100] later states that Amalthea also raises Aegipan ('Goat-Pan').[101] Nonnus, a 5th-century AD Greek writer, describes the god Pan as the shepherd of the goat Amalthea.[102]

In art

Ancient

Amalthea's extant iconography in ancient Greek and Roman art is limited.[103] She is represented either as a nymph or goat, the latter the more common form,[104] and her most notable attribute is the cornucopia.[105] On a Campana relief (a type of Roman terracotta relief) dating to the late 1st century BC or early 1st century AD, she is shown nursing Zeus (who sits in her lap) without the presence of a goat; two Kouretes carry swords and shields, one on each side of the pair.[106] As a goat, Amalthea is often shown suckling Zeus, or with the child mounted upon her back.[107] A 2nd-century AD marble relief depicts her as a goat giving the child her milk, behind two dancing Kouretes who clang their swords on their shields.[74] Amalthea is also depicted on coins and medallions from the Roman Empire, including those from the reigns of Titus (79–81 AD) and Gallienus (253–268 AD).[108]

Modern

Amalthea was the subject of a sculpture attributed to the Baroque sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini, among his first works, produced before 1615.[114] It depicts Amalthea as a goat, with the infant Jupiter drinking her milk, accompanied by a miniature satyr; it diverges from the ancient artistic tradition by having Jupiter feed himself.[115] The realism of the statue's surface is reminiscent of Hellenistic sculpture,[116] and it was once thought to have been produced in antiquity.[117] It was under the ownership of Scipione Borghese by 1615, and may have been seen as containing a political meaning: Amalthea, embodying abundance, may have symbolised the "Golden Age" ushered in under the papacy of Pope Paul V (who was also part of the Borghese family).[118]

The myth of the goat Amalthea was a favourite subject of the Flemish painter Jacob Jordaens.[119] Around 1630 to 1635, he created a painting in which Amalthea is being milked by Adrasteia beside a young, bawling Jupiter, bottle in hand.[120] A print after this painting by the Frisian engraver Schelte a Bolswert is accompanied by a Latin inscription which presents a moral interpretation of the myth: it explains that Jupiter's adulterous proclivities are unsurprising given he is raised amongst satyrs, on the milk of a goat.[121] Jordaens's other paintings of Amalthea include elements such as a satyr playing a flute or tambourine, and a nymph holding a milk pitcher while looking at the audience.[122] Around 1636 to 1637, the French painter Nicolas Poussin created a painting of the myth of Amalthea after an engraving by the 16th-century artist Giulio Bonasone.[123] Poussin's second painting of the scene, dating to around 1639, portrays Amalthea as a woman holding a valuable receptacle containing goat's milk, from which the child drinks.[124]

In 1787, the French sculptor Pierre Julien completed a white marble statue depicting Amalthea as a nymph, seated on a rock, with her hand grasping the lead of her goat. Julien's Amalthea is a young, nude woman endowed with full hips, her pose echoing the Venus de' Medici.[125] The sculpture was the central element of the dairy at Rambouillet,[126] which Louis XVI had commissioned for his wife Marie Antoinette.[127] Installed in 1787, the statue was situated in a grotto within the building, a placement Meredith Martin sees as indicating that the dairy was an allusion to the cave from the myth of Jupiter's upbringing.[128] According to Henri Lavagne, the amaltheum referenced by Cicero served as inspiration for this grotto.[129] Along the walls of the room which contained the grotto were two friezes, one of which depicted Amalthea as a goat, nursing Jupiter.[130]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Henig, pp. 582–583; Digital LIMC 45699 (Amaltheia 2).
  2. ^ Pearson, p. 60.
  3. ^ For lists of 19th-century proposals, see Gruppe, pp. 824–825 n. 9 and Roscher, p. 265. The two mentioned here are from Roscher; the second relies on the Iliad's use of amalḗ to describe lambs.
  4. ^ Pearson, p. 60. For these translations, see Montanari, s.vv. ἀμάλη, ἀμαλλα, ἀμαλός, p. 101.
  5. ^ Montanari, s.v. ἀμαλθεύω, p. 83.
  6. ^ Pearson, p. 60; Sophocles, fr. 95 TrGF (Radt, p. 148) [= Photius, Lexicon s.v. Ἀμαλθεύειν (Reitzenstein, p. 86)]. Reitzenstein's edition was published in 1907.
  7. ^ Pearson, p. 60. He adds that the association of the horn of Amalthea with various deities suggests that Amalthea was "not a distinctively conceived personality".
  8. ^ Mussies, "I. Name", para. 1.
  9. ^ Gantz, p. 28; West 1966, p. 300 on line 484.
  10. ^ Hutchinson, p. 201.
  11. ^ Hard 2004, p. 74; Hesiod, Theogony 484 (Most, pp. 40–41).
  12. ^ Willetts, p. 120; Astour, p. 314 n. 18; Hutchinson, pp. 201–202.
  13. ^ West 1966, p. 300 on line 484; López-Riuz, p. 45.
  14. ^ Athanassakis, p. 47 on lines 459–501.
  15. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art 30.115.21.
  16. ^ Sevasti, p. 127; Hard 2004, p. 280.
  17. ^ Fontenrose, p. 350; Henig, p. 582.
  18. ^ On the stories as initially independent, see: Miller, p. 223; Fowler 2013, pp. 323–324; Bremmer, para. 1; West 1983, p. 131. On the uncertainty as to when they were merged, see § Merging of traditions.
  19. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 324; Gantz, p. 41; Anacreon, fr. 361 PMG (Page, p. 184); Phocylides, fr. 7 Gerber (pp. 396, 397).
  20. ^ Bremmer, para. 1; Fowler 2013, p. 324; Aristophanes, fr. 707 PCG (Kassel & Austin 1984, p. 362); Cratinus, fr. 261 PCG (Kassel & Austin 1983, p. 255); Antiphanes, fr. 108 PCG (Kassel & Austin 1991, p. 368).
  21. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 323; Stephens, pp. 64 on lines 48–49; Pherecydes, fr. 42 Fowler (2000, p. 303) [= FGrHist 3 F42 = Apollodorus, 2.7.5 (Frazer 1921, pp. 256–257)].
  22. ^ Davies, pp. xii–xiii; Gantz, p. 28; Pindar, fr. 70b (249a) Maehler (p. 77) [= Scholia D on Homer's Iliad, 21.194 (Dindorf, p. 218)].
  23. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 323; Apollodorus, 2.7.5 (Frazer 1921, pp. 256–257).
  24. ^ Gantz, p. 42; Henig, p. 582; Apollodorus, 2.7.5 (Frazer 1921, pp. 256–257); Philemon, fr. 68 PCG (Kassel & Austin 1989, p. 261). According to Gantz, Apollodorus's source for this may be Pherecydes, whom he cites immediately afterwards.
  25. ^ Hard 2004, p. 280.
  26. ^ Wernicke, s.v. Amaltheia (1); Diodorus Siculus, 4.35.3–4 (Oldfather 1935, pp. 456–457); Strabo, 10.2.19 (Jones 1928, pp. 56–57). For other versions of this myth, including those in which Amalthea is not mentioned, see Achelous § Heracles and Deianeira.
  27. ^ Kerényi, p. 93.
  28. ^ Grimal, s.v. Amalthea, p. 35 describes it as "most usual form of the story".
  29. ^ West 1983, pp. 41–43, 132; Gantz, p. 41. West 1983, p. 5 suggests a date in the latter part of the 4th century BC, though Betegh, pp. 346–347 disagrees with West's assessment that the work was composed this late, and argues that content from the text was referenced by the 4th-century BC philosopher Eudemus of Rhodes.
  30. ^ Musaeus fr. 8 Diels (pp. 181–182) [= Eratosthenes, Catasterismi (Hard 2015, p. 44)]. On the Catasterismi and the summary by Pseudo-Eratosthenes, see Kanas, p. 109.
  31. ^ Gee, pp. 131–132; Gantz, p. 41; Frazer 1929a, p. 120.
  32. ^ Gee, p. 132; Gantz, p. 41.
  33. ^ a b Gantz, p. 41.
  34. ^ Frazer 1929b, p. 12; Musaeus, fr. 84 III Bernabé (2007, p. 43) [= Hyginus, De astronomia 2.13.6–7 (Hard 2015, pp. 44–45)].
  35. ^ The work was attributed in antiquity to the Roman author Gaius Julius Hyginus; for this dating and attribution, see Hard 2004, p. 13.
  36. ^ Gantz, p. 41. According to Gantz, this conclusion is "clearly intended" in Pseudo-Eratosthenes's account.
  37. ^ a b Bremmer, para. 1.
  38. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 324.
  39. ^ Hard 2004, pp. 75, 612. According to Gantz, p. 41, Callimachus "seems the first" to do so.
  40. ^ Boyd, p. 73; Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus 33–49 (Clayman, pp. 186–187).
  41. ^ Stephens, pp. 64 on lines 48–49.
  42. ^ Campbell, p. 322; Miller, p. 223; Hansen, p. 325; Scholia on Callimachus's Hymn to Zeus, 49 (Miller, p. 223 n. 9).
  43. ^ Larson, p. 185; Diodorus Siculus, 5.70.2–3 (Oldfather 1939, pp. 284–287).
  44. ^ Farnell 1896, p. 97; Diodorus Siculus, 5.70.6 (Oldfather 1939, pp. 286–289). For this translation, see Oldfather 1939, p. 289 n. 1.
  45. ^ Gantz, p. 41; Scholia D on Homer's Iliad, 15.229 (Dindorf, p. 72). This version specifies that it is Themis who provides the oracle directing Zeus to use the goat's skin. Part of the scholium's account also seems to have been preserved in P. Oxy. 3003 col. ii.15–19 (Parsons, p. 17); see Parsons, p. 19.
  46. ^ Hard 2015, p. 46.
  47. ^ Kidd, p. 239; Aratus, Phaenomena 155–161 (Mair & Mair, pp. 218–219). For the modern names of the constellation and star, see Mair & Mair's n. g and n. h.
  48. ^ Chrysanthou, p. 166.
  49. ^ Hard 2015, pp. 46–47; Aratus, Phaenomena 163 (Mair & Mair, pp. 218–219).
  50. ^ McLennan, p. 81.
  51. ^ Kidd, p. 242 on line 163.
  52. ^ Hard 2015, p. 47 (calls her Olenian, interpretations); Mair & Mair, p. 221 n. a (interpretations); Aratus, Phaenomena 164 (Mair & Mair, pp. 218–221). For the first interpretation, see Strabo, 8.7.5 (Jones 1927, pp. 222–223).
  53. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 323 n. 212; Boyd, p. 73 n. 28.
  54. ^ Henig, p. 582; Scholia on Aratus, 164 (Kidd, p. 243 on line 164). Fowler 2013, p. 323 n. 212 compares this with Hyginus, De astronomia 2.13.5 (Hard 2015, p. 44), in which Aix and Helice, nurses of Zeus, are daughters of Olenus. For a more detailed discussions of possible explanations for this word, see Bömer, pp. 298–299 on line 113, Frazer 1929b, pp. 11–12, and Boyd, p. 73 with n. 28.
  55. ^ Olivieri, p. 17 with n. 22–3; Hard 2015, p. 42; Santoni, p. 190 n. 118 to p. 91.
  56. ^ Gee, p. 132 with n. 20.
  57. ^ Fowler 2013, pp. 323–324.
  58. ^ Ovid, Fasti 5.111–28 (Frazer 1931, pp. 268–269).
  59. ^ Gantz, p. 41; Campbell, p. 322.
  60. ^ Gee, p. 131; Hard 2015, p. 47.
  61. ^ Boyle & Woodard, p. 258 on lines 5.111–114.
  62. ^ Gantz, p. 41; Hard 2004, p. 280.
  63. ^ Gee, p. 131 with n. 17 (placed in heavens); Boyle & Woodard, pp. 258 on lines 1.111–114, 259 on lines 5.127–128 (as Capella). According to Boyle & Woodard, the horn may become the constellation Capricornus.
  64. ^ Miller, pp. 218, 225.
  65. ^ Miller, pp. 219–220, 222; Frazer 1929b, p. 12.
  66. ^ Gee, p. 132.
  67. ^ Miller, p. 220.
  68. ^ The initial phrase of Ovid's narrative is Ab Iove surgat opus (translated as "Begin the work with Jupiter" by Frazer 1931, pp. 268–269), while Aratus begins with Ἐκ Διὸς ἀρχώμεσθα ("Let us begin from Zeus") (Miller, p. 221).
  69. ^ Miller, pp. 221–222. Miller also points to Ovid's choice to describe the goat as having two kids, which hints at the constellation of the Kids, mentioned by Aratus as sitting beside that of the goat (and as her offspring).
  70. ^ Boyd, p. 72. According to Boyd, Ovid "makes Callimachus both the primary model and the focus of his narrative". Miller, p. 218 argues that Boyd "downplays the extent of Ovid's engagement with Aratus here, and correspondingly somewhat overemphasizes the admittedly important Callimachean background".
  71. ^ Miller, p. 223; Scholia on Aratus, 156 (Jean Martin, pp. 158–159).
  72. ^ Gee, p. 134 with n. 27. According to Gee, "we can surmise this from our knowledge of the tradition recorded by Pherecydes".
  73. ^ Miller, p. 223.
  74. ^ a b Henig, p. 583; Digital LIMC 1942 (Amaltheia 6). For the figures in this relief as Kouretes, see Buddensieg, p. 129.
  75. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 139 (Smith & Trzaskoma, p. 146; Marshall, pp. 122–123). Most scholars now consider this attribution spurious; on the work's date and attribution, see Hard 2004, p. 13.
  76. ^ In the Theogony, Cronus, one of the Titans, swallows the first five of his children – Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon – upon the birth of each. Because of this, their mother Rhea gives Cronus a stone to swallow in place of their sixth child, Zeus (Hard 2004, pp. 67–68).
  77. ^ Gantz, p. 42. In the Fabulae, instead of being swallowed, Poseidon is thrown by Cronus into the ocean, and Hades is cast by him into the underworld. Hera is not swallowed either, as she transports the newborn Zeus.
  78. ^ Kerényi, pp. 93–94.
  79. ^ This is the interpretation of Henig, p. 582.
  80. ^ Hard 2004, p. 75; Kerényi, pp. 93–94; Henig, p. 582. The quoted translation is that given by Smith & Trzaskoma, p. 146.
  81. ^ Kerényi, p. 94. The Kouretes (also referred to as the Corybantes) are included in accounts of Zeus's infancy from as early as Callimachus, and are commonly described as performing their clangorous dance around the entrance to the cave in which the infant is nursed (Hard 2004, p. 75).
  82. ^ Nilsson, p. 480 n. 6.
  83. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 182 (Smith & Trzaskoma, p. 158; Marshall, p. 152). Marshall gives the names of the three daughters as Idyia, Althaea, and Adrasta.
  84. ^ See, for example, West 1983, p. 133 n. 40 and Smith & Trzaskoma, p. 191 on line 182.
  85. ^ This is the interpretation of Fowler 2013, p. 323.
  86. ^ Smith & Trzaskoma, pp. 158, 191 to line 182.
  87. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 323 n. 212; Frey, para. 1. Hyginus also states that these three are "the ones that are called Dodonian Nymphs (others call them the Naiads)" (Smith & Trzaskoma, p. 158).
  88. ^ On this figure, see Frey, para. 1.
  89. ^ Frey, para. 1; Braswell, p. 158; Didymus on Pindar, fr. 14b Braswell (pp. 155–157)] [= Lactantius, Divine Institutes (Bowen & Garnsey, p. 114)].
  90. ^ West 1983, pp. 122–123; Apollodorus, 1.1.6–7 (Frazer 1921, pp. 6–7).
  91. ^ On the Orphic Rhapsodies, see Graf, para. 2. For this dating, see Meisner, p. 1.
  92. ^ On Hermias's mention of this detail, see: West 1983, p. 133 n. 37; Orphic frr. 209 I Bernabé (2005, pp. 181–182), 209 II Bernabé (2005, pp. 182–183).
  93. ^ Brisson, V p. 61; West 1983, pp. 72, 122–123.
  94. ^ Bernabé 2008, p. 315. Compare with Meisner, p. 219, who states that in the Rhapsodies Zeus is "nursed by a triad of nymphs: Ida, Adrasteia, and Amaltheia".
  95. ^ Gantz, p. 42.
  96. ^ Bernabé 2005, p. 182.
  97. ^ Smith, s.v. Amalthea; Diodorus Siculus, 3.68.1 (Oldfather 1935, pp. 308–309).
  98. ^ Winiarczyk, p. 127; Diodorus Siculus, 3.74.1 (Oldfather 1935, pp. 328–329).
  99. ^ Bremmer, para. 1; Mussies, "II. Identity", para. 2; Zenobius, 2.48 (Schneidewin, pp. 44–45).
  100. ^ Hyginus, De astronomia 2.13.5 (Hard 2015, p. 44). On "Jupiter" as the name of Zeus in Latin literature, see Hard 2004, p. xvi.
  101. ^ Vian, p. 309; Hyginus, De astronomia 2.28.1 (Hard 2015, p. 79). For the translation of Aegipan's name, see Tripp, s.v. Aegipan, p. 20.
  102. ^ Vian, p. 309; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 27.298 (Rouse, pp. 340–341).
  103. ^ Reeder, p. 38; Preimesberger, p. 60.
  104. ^ Henig, pp. 582–583; Preimesberger, p. 60. According to Henig, some works identified as depictions of the goat Amalthea may instead represent the goat she owns.
  105. ^ Reeder, p. 38.
  106. ^ Henig, pp. 582–583 (type and date of relief, nursing, Kouretes); Buddensieg, pp. 128–129 with n. 19 (in lap, without a goat); Digital LIMC 45699 (Amaltheia 2). On Campana reliefs, see Stone, p. 148.
  107. ^ Henig, p. 583.
  108. ^ Woods, pp. 189–190; Preimesberger, pp. 63–64.
  109. ^ Preimesberger, p. 53; Galleria Borghese CXVIII.
  110. ^ d'Hulst, p. 148; Louvre 1405. The date given here is the one from Hulst.
  111. ^ Preimesberger, p. 65; Rijksmuseum RP-P-BI-2610.
  112. ^ Verdi, p. 208; Staatliche Museen zu Berlin DPG234. The date given here is that from Verdi.
  113. ^ Draper & Scherf, pp. 185–186; Louvre CC 230. The date given here is the one from Draper & Scherf.
  114. ^ Preimesberger, pp. 53, 59; Zirpolo, p. 90.
  115. ^ Preimesberger, pp. 60–61.
  116. ^ Hibbard, p. 26.
  117. ^ Zirpolo, p. 90; Hibbard, p. 25.
  118. ^ Preimesberger, pp. 53, 62.
  119. ^ Sutton, p. 147; d'Hulst, de Poorter & Vandenven, p. 24.
  120. ^ d'Hulst, de Poorter & Vandenven, p. 154.
  121. ^ Preimesberger, pp. 64–65.
  122. ^ Auwera & Schaudies, p. 116 (satyr playing flute, nymph with pitcher); Sutton, p. 147 (satyr with tambourine).
  123. ^ Verdi, p. 207. Bonasone's engraving was itself inspired by a painting of the scene by the Italian painter Giulio Romano.
  124. ^ Verdi, pp. 207–208.
  125. ^ Draper & Scherf, p. 186. For the statue's subject as nude, see Meredith Martin, p. 227.
  126. ^ Levey, p. 248.
  127. ^ Scherf, p. 126.
  128. ^ Meredith Martin, pp. 227, 236. For the date of the statue's installation, see Scherf, p. 126. For images of the sculpture while placed in this grotto, see Heitzmann, p. 51 figures 11–12.
  129. ^ Lavagne, pp. 264–265.
  130. ^ Heitzmann, p. 53.

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  • Media related to Amalthea (mythology) at Wikimedia Commons
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