Al-Jizya

Al-Jizya (Urdu: الجزیہ) is an essay by Shibli Nomani that examines the institution of jizya, outlining its origins, purpose, and application in Islamic states. It argues that jizya was not oppressive but a tax that exempted non-Muslims from military service while providing them protection. Originally published in Urdu in 1889, Shibli later complemented it with Huqooq al-Zimmeen, a work detailing the rights of non-Muslims in Islamic states.

Jizya is a tax collected by an Islamic state from non-Muslim subjects in exchange for the protection of their life and property, while those who participated in military service were exempted.^[1] Some Western historians described it as oppressive and humiliating, portraying it as a mechanism to pressure non-Muslims into conversion by framing it as a choice between paying the tax or embracing Islam. In India, European writers emphasized this interpretation to incite hostility between Hindus and Muslims.^[1] In response, Shibli Nomani published an essay on jizya in 1889 during his stay at Aligarh, seeking to refute these claims.^[2] He structured the work around three key questions: the linguistic meaning and usage of the word jizya, the origins of the institution in Iran and Arabia prior to Islam, and the purpose for which Islam adopted it.^[3]

According to Shibli, jizya is derived from the Persian word gaziya, meaning tax or tribute, and its use predates Islam. He argued that its originator was neither Islam nor the Muslims and that it was not intended as a means of coercion.^[4] Rather, it was a modest levy imposed on non-Muslims in return for protection, with exemption from military service.^[5] Muslim armies risked their lives defending the state, while non-Muslim subjects made payments through this tax and enjoyed peace and security.^[5] Shibli traced its origins to Naushirwan of Iran, who established rules of taxation that included jizya. The term spread into Arabia through Persian administrative influence, a process he linked to the general adoption of Persian legal terms into Arabic prior to Islam.^[4]

Shibli supported his arguments with historical references, including examples from the time of the Prophet, the Rashidun Caliphs, and later rulers. One case was that of Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah during the conquest of Syria: when Byzantine forces prepared a counterattack, Abu Ubayda ordered the return of the jizya to the conquered populations, since Muslims could not guarantee their protection at that moment.^[6] Shibli also explained that revenue from jizya was spent on equipping armies, fortifying borders, and maintaining infrastructure such as forts, roads, and bridges.^[6] While Muslims paid through both taxes and military service, non-Muslims, exempt from combat, equally benefited from the security system supported by this revenue, and also had access to resources such as sadaqah collected from Muslims.^[7]

Regarding the amount of jizya, Shibli noted that it was minimal compared to contemporary forms of taxation. The maximum rate was generally about one rupee annually, regardless of wealth, while common rates were six or three rupees per year.^[8] Exemptions applied to children under ten, the elderly over fifty, women, the poor, and the disabled.^[8] Shibli concluded that such a light tax could not reasonably be regarded as a tool for forced conversion, as European historians claimed.^[6] He argued that there is no evidence of people abandoning their religion to avoid it, and he emphasized that the rights and protections granted to non-Muslims who paid jizya compared favorably with those provided by many other states throughout history.^[6]

The work is regarded as one of Shibli's masterpieces in modern Islamic historiography.^[9] Originally written in Urdu and later rendered into Arabic by Shibli himself, it was subsequently translated into several languages, including English, initially through the initiative of Syed Ahmad Khan and later by Sabahuddin Abdur Rahman, while summaries and excerpts appeared in contemporary Egyptian newspapers and magazines.^[9][10] Commentators such as Syed Ahmad described it in the Aligarh Institute Gazette as a rare work that addressed long-standing accusations against Islam with clarity and thoroughness,^[11] while Md. Faiz Ahmad of Delhi University observed that it dealt with European criticisms in a historical, reasoned, and fair manner by outlining the origins, purposes, and historical uses of jizya.^[5] Shibli expanded on these arguments in Huqooq al-Zimmeen (1898), a work that discussed the rights of non-Muslims in Islamic states.^[12] Later scholars also highlighted its impact: Zafar Ahmad Siddiqi identified it as Shibli's second major historical work, which received greater recognition than his earlier writings;^[13] Mohammad Ilyas al-Azami stated that it exposed inaccuracies in European accounts;^[14] Sirajul Haq of Delhi University described the research as unique and exceptional;^[11] and Ammar Abdul Hai of Jamia Millia Islamia remarked that it was highly valued in scholarly circles.^[7]

• Deobandi historical works

• Urdu version at Internet Archive
• English version at Internet Archive