Afshin Bey's invasion of Anatolia

Afshin Bey's invasions into Anatolia were military campaigns conducted by the Seljuk commander Afshin Bey into the territories of the Byzantine Empire between 1066 and 1070. These raids were among the first comprehensive Seljuk advances into Anatolia, reaching as far as Kayseri , and the surrounding areas. During these campaigns, Byzantine armies were defeated in various battles, several cities and fortresses were captured, and significant amounts of booty and captives were obtained. These operations into the interior of Anatolia provided the Seljuks with important information about the region's geography and defense structure; they also served as military and strategic preparation for the Battle of Manzikert.

Upon the order of Sultan Alparslan, Seljuk Turkmen chieftains such as Gümüştekin, Afshin , and Ahmed Shah followed the Murat and Tigris rivers and conquered the castles along their way. Later, they entered the El-Cezire region and, after conquering the Ergani and Nizip areas, besieged Nusaybin.^[1] After the siege of Nusaybin failed, they crossed the Euphrates and raided Adıyaman.^[2] The Byzantine commander Aurandanos, who took action against the Seljuk raids, marched against the Seljuks. The two sides met near Hoşin Castle, and in the ensuing battle, the Byzantine army suffered a heavy defeat, and Aurandanos was captured, but later released in exchange for 40,000 gold coins.^[3] Later, as a result of a disagreement among the Seljuk Turkmens who returned to Ahlat, Gümüştekin killed Afshin's brother, whereupon Afşin killed Gümüştekin. Fearing the reaction of Sultan Alparslan, Afshin Bey, along with the Turkmens under his command, established a headquarters in Karadağ, located in the Amanos Mountains, and began raids in Anatolia.^[4] In 1066, the Seljuk Turkmens under Afshin Bey's command conquered Dulûk and Raban, raided Antioch, and obtained a large amount of booty. Later, in 1067, the Seljuk Turkmens under Afshin Bey's command defeated the Byzantine army they encountered near Malatya and attacked Kayseri, conquering the city. After raiding Karaman, Afshin Bey and the Seljuk Turkmens under his command went to Aleppo to sell the goods and captives they had seized.^[5][6] In 1068, the Seljuk Turkmen under the command of Afshin Bey, who again went on an expedition to Antioch, destroyed the Byzantine headquarters in Antioch and took a large amount of booty and many prisoners. Sultan Alparslan welcomed these events and pardoned Afshin Bey.^[7] In order to stop the raids of the Seljuk Turkmen into Anatolia, the Byzantine Empire sent Nikephoros Botaneiates. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the eastern armies, but Nikephoros failed in his post and the raids of the Seljuk Turkmen into Anatolia continued.^[5]

Facing difficulties due to the raids of the Seljuk Turkmen, the Byzantine Empress Eudokia married Romanos Diogenis to resolve internal problems within the empire and stop the Turkmen raids.^[8] Emperor Romanos set out on an expedition to the East with a large Byzantine army, including mercenaries, to stop the Seljuk Turkmen. Emperor Romanos arrived at Menbic via the Kayseri - Sivas - Divriği - Toros Mountains - Aleppo route and captured the city. After the Mirdasids , vassals of the Great Seljuk Empire, defeated a Byzantine army near Aleppo, Emperor Romanos came to the outskirts of Aleppo and engaged in battle with the Mirdasids. Both sides suffered heavy losses in this battle. After this battle, Emperor Romanos recaptured the fortresses of Artah and Imm, which had been taken by the Turks.^[9] Also, before Romanos arrived in Kayseri, he received news that the Seljuk Turkmen had captured and plundered Niksar, so he changed his route and went to Sivas and then to Divriği, where he faced Seljuk attacks along the way. Before Menbic, Romanos came to the outskirts of Malatya and besieged Malatya, where Has İnal, one of the Seljuk Turkmen commanders, was located, but he was defeated and moved on to Menbic. In addition, the Byzantines captured Artah, Azaz and Usfuna, as well as Menbic, and massacred the local population. Romanos became very worried when the Seljuk Turkmen under the command of Afşin Bey defeated the Byzantine forces they encountered near Emirdağ and Afyonkarahisar^[10] and then captured Amurriye (Amorion), and he returned to his country with his army. When the Byzantine army arrived in Anatolia, it was divided on the orders of Emperor Romanos and set out to attack the Seljuk Turkmen in Anatolia. One of these Byzantine armies attacked the Seljuk Turkmen who were raiding in Cilicia and put them in a difficult position around Silifke. As a result, the Turkmen retreated to Aleppo. Furthermore, Afshin Bey returned with a large number of captives and goods after Emperor Romanos's arrival in Anatolia, and Emperor Romanos, avoiding a confrontation with Afshin Bey, retreated to Constantinople. Emperor Romanos's expedition was unable to stop the raids of the Seljuk Turkmen.^[11]

In 1069, Seljuk Turkmens under the command of Afshin Bey, Sunduk Bey, Ahmet Shah Bey, Türkman Bey, Dilmaçoğlu Mehmed Bey , Duduoğlu Bey, Serhenkoğlu Bey and Arslantaş Bey began raiding Anatolia again. Although the Emperor sent armies to the region to stop these raids, these armies were defeated in the struggle against the Seljuk Turks. Unable to stop the Seljuk Turks, Emperor Romanos sent an army under the command of Manuel Komnenos to the vicinity of Sivas and another army under the command of Filaretos Bırahmiyos to the vicinity of Malatya, and then decided to personally lead a third army on the expedition. Emperor Romanos went on another expedition to Anatolia in 1069. In this expedition, Romanos engaged in battles with the Turkmens around Kayseri , Palu and Sivas and took prisoners, but he could not achieve any results in the face of the Seljuk Turks' retreat and returned to Constantinople. In addition, the Seljuk Turks inflicted a heavy defeat on the Byzantine army under the command of Philaretos Brahmin in Malatya. Upon hearing that Afshin Bey and other Seljuk Turks had captured many cities and castles, including Konya.^[1] In 1070, Sultan Alparslan, who came to Anatolia, after conquering Erciş and Malazgirt, ordered Afshin Bey to capture and bring the Seljuk ruler Erbasgan. Aware of this, Erbasgan fled to Anatolia with his army. In Anatolia, Erbasgan defeated the Byzantine army under the command of the Byzantine general Manuel Komnenos and captured Manuel Komnenos. Manuel believed that Erbasgan intended to seek refuge in Byzantium when he was captured. Upon seeing Afshin Bey approaching them, they quickly set out for Constantinople. Afshin Bey followed Manuel and Erbasgan and raided Kayseri, Sivas, Afyonkarahisar, Uşak, Denizli, Honaz, Laodikya, Ankara^[12] and the Marmara region, before reaching KadıköyAfshin Bey, who came near, sent an envoy to Emperor Romanos to hand over Erbasgan and his companions, but he did not get any results. Thereupon, Afshin Bey set out to return to Ahlat in the same year. On this journey, Afshin Bey raided the Byzantine cities and castles that were on his way. Afshin Bey returned to Ahlat with the goods he seized in all the raids he undertook and informed Sultan Alparslan about the situation of Byzantium and Erbasgan.^[13]

As a result of these raids by Afshin Bey and other Seljuk Turks, the stability of Byzantium in the region was severely shaken, and the Byzantine troops and garrisons in the region were worn down by the attacks of the Seljuk Turkmen. Afshin Bey made important contributions to the victory at Malazgirt by reporting all kinds of military, geographical, strategic, etc. intelligence he obtained about Anatolia to Sultan Alparslan.^[14]